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['Uruguay (official full name in  ; pron.  , Eastern Republic of  Uruguay) is a country located in the southeastern part of South America.  It is home to 3.3 million people, of which 1.7 million live in the capital Montevideo and its metropolitan area.',
 'It is bordered by Brazil to the north, by Argentina across the bank of both the Uruguay River to the west and the estuary of RÃ\xado de la Plata to the southwest, and the South Atlantic Ocean to the southeast. It is the second smallest independent country in South America, larger only than Suriname and the French overseas department of French Guiana.',
 'Montevideo was founded by the Spanish in the early 18th century as a military stronghold. Uruguay won its independence in 1828 following a three-way struggle between Spain, Argentina and Brazil. It is a constitutional democracy, where the president fulfills the roles of both head of state and head of government',
 'The economy is largely based in agriculture (making up 10% of the GDP and the most substantial export) and the state-sector, and relies heavily on world trade. Consequently, it is badly affected by any downturn in global prices. However, the economy is on the whole more stable than surrounding states, and it maintains a solid reputation with investors.',
 'According to Transparency International, Uruguay is the second least corrupt country in Latin America (after Chile),  Transparency.org.  with its political and labor conditions being among the freest on the continent.',
 'In November 2007 it became the first Latin American country and the second in the American Continent to recognize same-sex civil unions at the national level.   Uruguay Passes Civil-Union Law at  San Francisco Bay Times (December 6, 2007)',
 '88% of the population are of European descent. Just under two-thirds of the population are declared Roman Catholics. However, the majority of Uruguayans are only nominally religious.  CIA World Factbook -- Uruguay',
 'The name "Uruguay" comes from GuaranÃ\xad. It has many possible meanings. Some of the proposed meanings are:',
 '* "River of colorful or \'painted\' chinchillas (birds)": poetic interpretation attributed to Juan Zorrilla de San MartÃ\xadn. ',
 '* "River of those who bring food": an anonymous version which has been popularized since the discovery of an old document written by Jesuit Lucas Marton.']

['Uruguay (official full name in  ; pron.  , Eastern Republic of  Uruguay) is a country located in the southeastern part of South America.  It is home to 3.3 million people, of which 1.7 million live in the capital Montevideo and its metropolitan area.',
 'It is bordered by Brazil to the north, by Argentina across the bank of both the Uruguay River to the west and the estuary of RÃ\xado de la Plata to the southwest, and the South Atlantic Ocean to the southeast. It is the second smallest independent country in South America, larger only than Suriname and the French overseas department of French Guiana.',
 'Montevideo was founded by the Spanish in the early 18th century as a military stronghold. Uruguay won its independence in 1828 following a three-way struggle between Spain, Argentina and Brazil. It is a constitutional democracy, where the president fulfills the roles of both head of state and head of government',
 'The economy is largely based in agriculture (making up 10% of the GDP and the most substantial export) and the state-sector, and relies heavily on world trade. Consequently, it is badly affected by any downturn in global prices. However, the economy is on the whole more stable than surrounding states, and it maintains a solid reputation with investors.',
 'According to Transparency International, Uruguay is the second least corrupt country in Latin America (after Chile),  Transparency.org.  with its political and labor conditions being among the freest on the continent.',
 'In November 2007 it became the first Latin American country and the second in the American Continent to recognize same-sex civil unions at the national level.   Uruguay Passes Civil-Union Law at  San Francisco Bay Times (December 6, 2007)',
 '88% of the population are of European descent. Just under two-thirds of the population are declared Roman Catholics. However, the majority of Uruguayans are only nominally religious.  CIA World Factbook -- Uruguay',
 'The name "Uruguay" comes from GuaranÃ\xad. It has many possible meanings. Some of the proposed meanings are:',
 '* "River of colorful or \'painted\' chinchillas (birds)": poetic interpretation attributed to Juan Zorrilla de San MartÃ\xadn. ',
 '* "River of those who bring food": an anonymous version which has been popularized since the discovery of an old document written by Jesuit Lucas Marton.',
 'The inhabitants of Uruguay before European colonization of the area were various tribes of hunter gatherer native Americans, the most well known being the Charrúa Indians, a small tribe driven south by the GuaranÃ\xad Indians of Paraguay. The population is estimated at no more than 5000 to 10000.  /ref>',
 'The Plaza Independencia ("Independence Square"), in Montevideo, hosts the tomb of José Artigas, late leader of the Provincia Oriental and the Liga Federal. In front of the square, the Palacio Salvo can be seen.',
 "Europeans arrived in the territory of present-day Uruguay in the year 1536, but the absence of gold and silver limited settlement in the region during the 16th and 17th centuries. Uruguay became a zone of contention between the Spanish and the Portuguese empires. In 1603 the Spanish began to introduce cattle, which became a source of wealth in the region.  /ref> The first permanent settlement on the territory of present-day Uruguay was founded by the Spanish in 1624 at Villa Soriano on the south-western coast of the RÃ\xado Negro. In 1680 the Portuguese built a fort at Colonia del Sacramento.  /ref> Spanish colonization increased as Spain sought to limit Portugal's expansion of Brazil's frontiers.",
 "Another segment of colonial Uruguay's population consisted of people of African descent.  Colonial Uruguay's African community grew in number as its members escaped harsh treatment in Buenos Aires. Many relocated to Montevideo, which had a larger black community, seemed lest hostile politically than Buenos Aires, and had a more favorable climate with lower humidity.",
 'As a province of the Viceroyalty of La Plata, colonial Uruguay was known as the Banda Oriental, or Eastern Strip, referring to its location east of the Rio Uruguay. The inhabitants called themselves "Easterners" or "Orientales", a term they still commonly use to refer to themselves.',
 "Uruguay's capital, Montevideo, was founded by the Spanish in the early 18th century as a military stronghold; its natural harbor soon developed into a commercial center competing with Argentina's capital, Buenos Aires. Uruguay's early 19th century history was shaped by ongoing conflicts between the British, Spanish, Portuguese, and colonial forces for dominance in the Argentina-Brazil-Uruguay region.  /ref> In 1806 and 1807, the British army attempted to seize Buenos Aires as part of their war with Spain. As a result, at the beginning of 1807, Montevideo was occupied by a 10,000-strong British force who held it until the middle of the year when they left to attack Buenos Aires.",
 'The Uruguayans\' road to independence was much longer than those of other countries in the Americas. Early efforts at attaining independence focused on overthrow of Spanish rule, a process begun by Jose Gervasio Artigas in 1811 when he led his forces to victory against the Spanish in the battle of Las Piedras on May 18, 1811. In 1816, Portuguese troops invaded present-day Uruguay, which led to its eventual annexation by Brazil in 1821 under the provincial name, Provincia Cisplatina.  On April 19, 1825, thirty-three Uruguayan exiles led by Juan Antonio Lavalleja returned from Buenos Aires to lead an insurrection in Uruguay with the help of Argentine troops.  They were known as the "Treinta y Tres Orientales".  Their actions inspired representatives from Uruguay to meet in La Florida, a town in the recently liberated area, where they declared independence from Portugal (and therefore Brazil) on August 25, 1825.  Uruguayan independence was not recognized by its neighbors until 1828, when Britain, in search of new commercial markets, brokered peace between Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay.  /ref>',
 'RÃ\xado de la Plata in 1603.',
 "Uruguay's politics takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Uruguay is both head of state and head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the General Assembly of Uruguay. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.",
 "For most of Uruguay's history, the Partido Colorado and Partido Blanco have alternated in power. The Partido Blanco has its roots in the countryside and the original settlers of Spanish origin and the cattle ranchers. The Partido Colorado has its roots in the port city of Montevideo, the new immigrants of Italian origin and the backing of foreign interests. The Partido Colorado built a welfare state financed by taxing the cattle revenue and giving state pickles and free services to the new urban immigrants which became dependent of the state. The elections of 2004, however, brought the Frente Amplio, a coalition of socialists, former Tupamaros, former communists and mainly social democrats among others to power with majorities in both houses of parliament and the election of President Tabaré Vázquez by an absolute majority.",
 'The Frente Amplio has displaced the Partido Colorado from its traditional urban welfare state constituency and is enjoying  a boom in export commodity prices.',
 'The Reporters Without Borders worldwide press freedom index has ranked Uruguay as* 57th of 168 reported countries in 2006.  Reporters Without Borders Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2006',
 'According to Freedom House, an American organization that tracks global trends in political freedom, Uruguay ranked twenty-seventh in its "Freedom in the World" index. According to the Economist Intelligence Unit, Uruguay scores a 7.96 on the Democracy Index, located in the last position among the 28 countries considered to be Full Democracies in the world. The report looks at 60 indicators across five categories: Free elections, civil liberties, functioning government, political participation and political culture. The Economist, The world in 2007, A Pause in democracy\'s march Page 93',
 'Uruguay ranks 28th in the World CPI (Corruption Perception Index) composed by Transparency International.',
 "The Uruguayan constitution allows citizens to challenge laws approved by Parliament by use of a Referendum, or to propose changes to the Constitution by the use of a Plebiscite. During the last 15 years the method has been used several times; to confirm an amnesty to members of the military who violated human rights during the military regime (1973-1985), to stop privatization of public utilities companies (See Economy: Public Sector), to defend pensioners' incomes, and to protect water resources.",
 "At 176,214 square kilometres (68,036 square miles) of continental land and 142,199 square kilometres (54,903 sq mi) of jurisdictional waters and small river islands,  Instituto Nacional Estadistica  Uruguay is the second smallest sovereign nation in South America (after Suriname) and the third smallest territory (French Guiana is the smallest). The landscape features mostly rolling plains and low hill ranges (cuchillas) with a fertile coastal lowland. A dense fluvial network covers the country, consisting of four river basins or deltas; the RÃ\xado de la Plata, the Uruguay River, the Laguna MerÃ\xadn and the RÃ\xado Negro. The major internal river is the RÃ\xado Negro ('black river'). Several lagoons are found along the Atlantic coast.",
 "The highest point in the country is the Cerro Catedral at 513.66 meters (1,685 ft 3 in) in the 'Sierra de Carapé' mountain range. To the southwest is the RÃ\xado de la Plata, the estuary of the Uruguay River, which forms the western border, and the Paraná River, that does not run through Uruguay itself.",
 'Uruguay consists of nineteen departments ( , singular  ). The first departments were formed in 1816 and the newest date from 1885 which is Flores. The departments are governed by an intendente municipal who is elected for five years. The members of the Departmental Assembly ( ) form the legislative level of the department.  ',
 'Map of Uruguay',
 'Uruguay shares borders with two countries, with Argentina: ',
 'and with Brazil:',
 'The climate in Uruguay is temperate: it has warm summers and cold winters. The predominantly gently undulating landscape is also somewhat vulnerable to rapid changes from weather fronts.',
 'It receives the periodic influence of the polar air in winter, and tropical air from Brazil in summer. Without mountains in  zone that act as a barrier, the air masses freely move by the territory, causing abrupt weather changes.',
 'The coolest month is June, while the warmest is January. The rainfall is equally distributed throughout the year, but tends to be a bit more frequent in the autumn months. There can be frequent thunderstorms in the summer. Although snow is not very common, it snowed in 1913, 1918, 1963, 1989, 1992, and 2007.    ',
 'Playa Brava in Punta del Este, Uruguay',
 'Since 1984 Uruguay has the Antarctic base "General Artigas" on King George Island in Antarctica, part of the South Shetland Islands archipelago, at  , some 100 km (62 mi) from the Antarctic peninsula itself.',
 "Montevideo, Uruguay's capital.",
 'Uruguay has a middle income economy, mainly dominated by the State services sector, an export-oriented agricultural sector and an industrial sector. Uruguay relies heavily on trade, particularly in agricultural exports, leaving the country particularly vulnerable to slumps in commodity prices and global economic slowdowns. After averaging growth of 5% annually in 1996-1998, in 1999-2001 the economy suffered from lower demand in Argentina and Brazil, which together account for nearly half of Uruguay\'s exports. Despite the severity of the trade shocks, Uruguay\'s financial indicators remained stabler than those of its neighbours, a reflection of its solid reputation among investors and its investment-grade sovereign bond rating â\x80\x94 one of only two in South America.  About.com: Go South America, based on information from the CIA World Factbook.  In recent years Uruguay has shifted some of its energy into developing the commercial use of IT technologies and has become the first exporter of software in Latin America. Diego Stewart,  Building out: Uruguay exports architectural services to India and Latin America," in Latin Trade, May 2005. Retrieved August 11, 2007.',
 "While some parts of the economy appeared to be resilient, the downturn had severe impact on the local population. Unemployment levels rose to more than 20%, real wages fell, the peso devalued. These worsening economic conditions played a part in turning public opinion against the mildly free market economic policies adopted by the previous administrations in the 1990s, leading to the popular rejection of proposals for privatization of the state petroleum company in 2003 and of the state water company in 2004. The newly elected Frente Amplio government, while pledging to continue payments on Uruguay's external debt, Michael Fox,  Uruguay's Frente Amplio: From Revolution to Dilution, June 19, 2007. Retrieved August 11, 2007.   has also promised to undertake a Emergency Plan (See section:Social Problems Poverty and inequality) to attack the widespread problems of poverty and unemployment.   (See leaders, President Tabare Vazquez 'On taking office he announced a $100m emergency plan to help the poor '",
 'Agriculture played such an important part in Uruguayan history and national identity until the middle of the twentieth century that the entire country was then sometimes likened to a single huge estancia (agricultural estate) centred around Montevideo, where the wealth generated in the hinterland was spent, at its casco or administrative head.',
 'A heartland of historic estancias: Estancia San Eugenio, Casupá, southern department of Florida.',
 'Today, agriculture contributes roughly 10% to the countryâ\x80\x99s GDP and is still the main foreign exchange earner, putting Uruguay in line with other agricultural exporters like Brazil, Canada and New Zealand. Uruguay is a member of the Cairns Group of exporters of agricultural products. Uruguayâ\x80\x99s agriculture has relatively low inputs of labour, technology and capital in comparison with other such countries, which results in comparatively lower yields per hectare but also opens the door for Uruguay to market its products as "natural" or "ecological."',
 'Campaigns like â\x80\x9cUruguayan grass-fed beefâ\x80\x9d and â\x80\x9cUruguay Naturalâ\x80\x9d aim to establish Uruguay as a premium brand in beef, wine and other food products.',
 "Recently, an industry has developed around estancia tourism which capitalizes on the traditional or folkloristic connotations associated with gaucho culture and the remaining resources of Uruguay's historic estancias.",
 'Approximately 88% of its population are of prevalently white European descent: Spaniards, followed closely by Italians, then French, Germans, Portuguese, British, Swiss, Russians, Poles, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Estonians, Latvians, Dutch, Belgians, Croatians, Greeks, Scandinavians, Irish, and Armenians. 0.8% are Mestizo, and',
 'the remaining are from Afro-Latin American ancestry.   /ref>',
 '  INE, (in Spanish)',
 'Many of the European immigrants arrived in Uruguay in the late 1800s and have heavily influenced the architecture and culture of Montevideo and other major cities. For this reason, Montevideo and life within the city are reminiscent of parts of Europe. For example Barcelona, Thessaloniki or Tel-Aviv are said to be similar to Montevideo in different aspects  /ref>',
 'Some colonies such as Colonia Valdense -a Waldensian colony-, Colonia Suiza -also named Nueva Helvecia- a mainly Swiss colony with some German and Austrian settlers, were founded in the department of Colonia. There are also towns founded by early British settlers, like Conchillas and Barker. A Russian colony called San Javier was found in the department of RÃ\xado Negro. Mennonite colonies can also be found in the department of RÃ\xado Negro and in the department of Canelones. One of them, called El Ombú, is famous for its well-known Dulce de Leche "Claldy", and is located near the city of Young.',
 'Uruguay has a large urban middle class, and literacy rate of 96.79% (1996 est),   /ref>. During the 1970s and 1980s, an estimated 600,000 Uruguayans emigrated, mainly to Spain, Italy, Argentina and Brazil. Other Uruguayans went to various countries in Europe, to the USA and Australia.',
 'The birth rate is 16.73 births/1000 population.  and Brazil (16.56 births/1,000 population).  /ref>',
 "Uruguay's oldest church is in San Carlos, Maldonado.",
 'Church and state are officially separated since approximately 1916. Most Uruguayans adhere to the Roman Catholic faith (62%), with smaller Protestant (4%) and Jewish (3%), as well as a large nonprofessing group (31%).',
 'Although the majority of Uruguayans do not actively practice a religion, they are nominally church members in the Catholic, Protestant and Jewish communities. It is widely considered the most secular nation in Latin America.',
 'According to data published by the United Nations, the Gini index for Uruguay equals to 44.8 in 2003, where 100 stands for maximum inequality and 0 for even distribution of the wealth between the population.',
 'A recent report compiled and published by the National Statistics Institute      (Instituto Nacional de Estadistica) of Uruguay used 2 indicators to estimate the number of people living in poverty in the country.',
 '*Indigence line: income of the family is not enough for the basic food consumption.',
 '*Poverty line: income of the family is not enough for food consumption, clothing, health and transport.',
 'The numbers obtained depends according with the methodology used, the inform uses 3 different  methods. According to the one proposed by the Regional Workshop about poverty measurement in 1996, which produces the highest values of all, the results for the first quarter of 2006 are:',
 'Population below Indigence line: 3.01%',
 'Population below Poverty line:   18%',
 'The reports shows the indicators are improving as the country is recovering from the last 2002 crisis; in 2004, poverty indicators reached an all time high.   /ref>',
 'A new ministry of Social Development was created by the Broad Front (Uruguay) (Frente Amplio) government led by Tabare Vazquez, and an Emergency plan which targets the less favoured 200.000 Uruguayans.',
 'The average income of a woman in 2002 in Uruguay was 71.8% of the income of men for the same activity.  /ref> The average income of African heritage workers is 65% of that of those of European heritage.  /ref>',
 'Montevideo, capital of the country. A view of pedestrian street in the Ciudad Vieja, former Spanish citadel',
 'Although rents in neighborhoods not in high demand are not very expensive in Uruguay, it is usually required to have another property as a warranty for the contract, or leave a deposit which many can not afford.',
 'This first condition makes renting a property especially difficult for the least favoured sectors of the population. According to the INE 23, 3% of the population lives in a place neither owned nor rented. Some of them are proper built houses, but others are precarious constructions built illegally in public or private empty land just outside the cities. Thus, whole new poor neighborhoods have emerged in the last decades. They are called Asentamientos or more colloquially Cantegriles in ironic allusion to the fashionable Neighborhood of Cantegril in Punta del Este. ',
 'The phenomena is similar to the Favelas in Brazil, ',
 'Villas Miseria in Argentina, Barrios in Venezuela, Arrabales in Spain, Poblaciones Callampa in Chile or Jacales in Mexico.',
 "The main sport in Uruguay is football. The Uruguay national football team is one of only five nations to win the FIFA World Cup on two or more occasions. In 1930, Uruguay hosted the first ever World Cup and went on to win the competition, defeating Argentina 4-2 in the final. Uruguay won the 1950 FIFA World Cup as well, famously defeating the favored hosts, Brazil, 2-1 in the final. Uruguay is by far the smallest country, population wise, to win a World Cup. Out of the World Cup winners, the nation with the second smallest population is Argentina (winners of the 1978 and 1986 editions) who currently have just over 40,000,000 people according to the latest estimate; the 2002 census has Uruguay's current population slightly under 3,400,000. The Uruguay national team has also won the Copa América 14 different times, a record it shares with Argentina.",
 'Basketball, rugby union, and tennis are other popular sports in Uruguay.',
 ';Political and economic rankings',
 ';Health rankings',
 ';Other rankings',
 'Michael Faraday, FRS (September 22, 1791 â\x80\x93 August 25, 1867) was an English chemist and physicist (or natural philosopher, in the terminology of that time) who contributed to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry.',
 'Faraday studied the magnetic field around a conductor carrying a DC electric current, and established the basis for the magnetic field concept in physics. He discovered electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis. He established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was an underlying relationship between the two phenomena.  Michael Faraday entry at the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica hosted by LovetoKnow Retrieved January 2007.   Institution of Engineering and Technology, London Archives, Michael Faraday  His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts that electricity became viable for use in technology.',
 'As a chemist, Faraday discovered benzene, investigated the clathrate hydrate of chlorine, invented an early form of the bunsen burner and the system of oxidation numbers, and popularized terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion.',
 'Although Faraday received little formal education and knew little of higher mathematics, such as calculus, he was one of the most influential scientists in history. Some historians    of science refer to him as the best experimentalist in the history of science.  "best experimentalist in the history of science." Quoting Dr Peter Ford, from the University of Bathâ\x80\x99s Department of Physics. Accessed January 2007.  The SI unit of capacitance, the farad, is named after him, as is the Faraday constant, the charge on a mole of electrons (about 96,485 coulombs).  Faraday\'s law of induction states that a magnetic field changing in time creates a proportional electromotive force.',
 'Faraday was the first and foremost Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a position to which he was appointed for life.',
 'Michael Faraday from a photograph by John Watkins, British Library',
 'Michael Faraday was born in Newington Butts, near present-day South London, England. His family was not well off. His father, James, was a member of the Sandemanian sect of Christianity. James Faraday had come to London ca 1790 from Outhgill in Westmorland, where he had been the village blacksmith. The young Michael Faraday, one of four children, having only the most basic of school educations, had to largely educate himself. "Michael Faraday."  History of Science and Technology. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 4 June 2007.  /ref> At fourteen he became apprenticed to a local bookbinder and bookseller George Riebau and, during his seven-year apprenticeship, he read many books, including Isaac Watts\' The Improvement of the Mind, and he enthusiastically implemented the principles and suggestions contained therein. He developed an interest in science and specifically in electricity. In particular, he was inspired by the book Conversations in Chemistry by Jane Marcet.',
 "At the age of twenty, in 1812, at the end of his apprenticeship, Faraday attended lectures by the eminent English chemist and physicist Humphry Davy of the Royal Institution and Royal Society, and John Tatum, founder of the City Philosophical Society. Many tickets for these lectures were given to Faraday by William Dance (one of the founders of the Royal Philharmonic Society). Afterwards, Faraday sent Davy a three hundred page book based on notes taken during the lectures. Davy's reply was immediate, kind, and favorable. When Davy damaged his eyesight in an accident with nitrogen trichloride, he decided to employ Faraday as a secretary. When John Payne, one of the Royal Institution's assistants, was fired, Sir Humphry Davy was asked to find a replacement. He appointed Faraday as Chemical Assistant at the Royal Institution on March 1.",
 "In the class-based English society of the time, Faraday was not considered a gentleman. When Davy went on a long tour to the continent in 1813-5, his valet did not wish to go. Faraday was going as Davy's scientific assistant, and was asked to act as Davy's valet until a replacement could be found in Paris. Davy failed to find a replacement, and Faraday was forced to fill the role of valet as well as assistant throughout the trip. Davy's wife, Jane Apreece, refused to treat Faraday as an equal (making him travel outside the coach, eat with the servants, etc.) and generally made Faraday so miserable that he contemplated returning to England alone and giving up science altogether. The trip did, however, give him access to the European scientific elite and a host of stimulating ideas.",
 "His sponsor and mentor was John 'Mad Jack' Fuller, who created the Fullerian Professorship of Chemistry at the Royal Institution.",
 "Faraday was a devout Christian and a member of the small Sandemanian denomination, an offshoot of the Church of Scotland. He later served two terms as an elder in the group's church.",
 'Faraday married Sarah Barnard (1800-1879) on June 2, 1821, although they would never have children. They met through attending the Sandemanian church.',
 'He was elected a member of the Royal Society in 1824, appointed director of the laboratory in 1825; and in 1833 he was appointed Fullerian professor of chemistry in the institution for life, without the obligation to deliver lectures.',
 'The title page of The Chemical History of a Candle (1861)',
 "Faraday's earliest chemical work was as an assistant to Davy. He made a special study of chlorine, and discovered two new chlorides of carbon. He also made the first rough experiments on the diffusion of gases, a phenomenon first pointed out by John Dalton, the physical importance of which was more fully brought to light by Thomas Graham and Joseph Loschmidt. He succeeded in liquefying several gases; he investigated the alloys of steel, and produced several new kinds of glass intended for optical purposes. A specimen of one of these heavy glasses afterwards became historically important as the substance in which Faraday detected the rotation of the plane of polarisation of light when the glass was placed in a magnetic field, and also as the substance which was first repelled by the poles of the magnet. He also endeavoured, with some success, to make the general methods of chemistry, as distinguished from its results, the subject of special study and of popular exposition.",
 "He invented an early form of what was to become the Bunsen burner, which is used almost universally in science laboratories as a convenient source of heat.    See page 127 of Faraday's Chemical Manipulation, Being Instructions to Students in Chemistry (1827)",
 'Faraday worked extensively in the field of chemistry, discovering chemical substances such as benzene (which he called bicarburet of hydrogen), inventing the system of oxidation numbers, and liquefying gases such as chlorine. In 1820 Faraday reported on the first syntheses of compounds made from carbon and chlorine, C 2 H 6  and C 2 H 4 , and published his results the following year.          Faraday also determined the composition of the chlorine clathrate hydrate, which had been discovered by Humphry Davy in 1810.',
 'Faraday also discovered the laws of electrolysis and popularized terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion, terms largely created by William Whewell.',
 'Faraday was the first to report what later came to be called metallic nanoparticles. In 1847 he discovered that the optical properties of gold colloids differed from those of the corresponding bulk metal. This was probably the first reported observation of the effects of quantum size, and might be considered to be the birth of nanoscience.',
 "Faraday's greatest work was probably with electricity and magnetism. The first experiment which he recorded was the construction of a voltaic pile with seven halfpence pieces, stacked together with seven disks of sheet zinc, and six pieces of paper moistened with salt water. With this pile he decomposed sulphate of magnesia (first letter to Abbott, July 12, 1812).",
 '[[Image:Faraday photograph ii.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Michael Faraday holding a glass bar of the type he used in 1845 to show that magnetism can affect light.  Detail of an engraving by Henry Adlard, based on an earlier photograph by Maull & Polyblank ca. 1857.   See  National Portrait Gallery, UK  ]]',
 'In 1821, soon after the Danish physicist and chemist, Hans Christian Ã\x98rsted discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetism, Davy and British scientist William Hyde Wollaston tried but failed to design an electric motor.  Faraday, having discussed the problem with the two men, went on to build two devices to produce what he called electromagnetic rotation: a continuous circular motion from the circular magnetic force around a wire and a wire extending into a pool of mercury with a magnet placed inside would rotate around the magnet if supplied with current from a chemical battery. The latter device is known as a homopolar motor. These experiments and inventions form the foundation of modern electromagnetic technology. Faraday published his results without acknowledging his debt to Wollaston and Davy, and the resulting controversy caused Faraday to withdraw from electromagnetic research for several years.',
 "At this stage, there is also evidence to suggest that Davy may have been trying to slow Faradayâ\x80\x99s rise as a scientist (or natural philosopher as it was known then). In 1825, for instance, Davy set him onto optical glass experiments, which progressed for six years with no great results. It was not until Davy's death, in 1829, that Faraday stopped these fruitless tasks and moved on to endeavors that were more worthwhile. Two years later, in 1831, he began his great series of experiments in which he discovered electromagnetic induction. Joseph Henry likely discovered self-induction a few months earlier and both may have been anticipated by the work of Francesco Zantedeschi in Italy in 1829 and 1830.",
 "Faraday's breakthrough came when he wrapped two insulated coils of wire around a massive iron ring, bolted to a chair, and found that upon passing a current through one coil, a momentary current was induced in the other coil.   This phenomenon is known as mutual induction. The iron ring-coil apparatus is still on display at the Royal Institution. In subsequent experiments he found that if he moved a magnet through a loop of wire, an electric current flowed in the wire. The current also flowed if the loop was moved over a stationary magnet. His demonstrations established that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field. This relation was mathematically modelled by Faraday's law, which subsequently became one of the four Maxwell equations. These in turn have evolved into the generalization known today as field theory.",
 'Michael Faraday - statue in Savoy Place, London.',
 'Sculptor John Henry Foley RA',
 'Faraday later used the principle to construct the electric dynamo, the ancestor of modern power generators.',
 'In 1839 he completed a series of experiments aimed at investigating the fundamental nature of electricity. Faraday used "static",  batteries, and "animal electricity" to produce the phenomena of electrostatic attraction, electrolysis, magnetism, etc. He concluded that, contrary to scientific opinion of the time, the divisions between the various "kinds" of electricity were illusory. Faraday instead proposed that only a single "electricity" exists, and the changing values of quantity and intensity (voltage and charge) would produce different groups of phenomena.',
 "Near the end of his career Faraday proposed that electromagnetic forces extended into the empty space around the conductor. This idea was rejected by his fellow scientists, and Faraday did not live to see this idea eventually accepted. Faraday's concept of lines of flux emanating from charged bodies and magnets provided a way to visualize electric and magnetic fields. That mental model was crucial to the successful development of electromechanical devices which dominated engineering and industry for the remainder of the 19th century.",
 'In 1845, he discovered the phenomenon that he named diamagnetism, and what is now called the Faraday effect: The plane of polarization of linearly polarized light propagated through a material medium can be rotated by the application of an external magnetic field aligned in the propagation direction. He wrote in his notebook, "I have at last succeeded in illuminating a magnetic curve or line of force and in magnetising a ray of light". This established that magnetic force and light were related.',
 'In his work on static electricity, Faraday demonstrated that the charge only resided on the exterior of a charged conductor, and exterior charge had no influence on anything enclosed within a conductor. This is because the exterior charges redistribute such that the interior fields due to them cancel. This shielding effect is used in what is now known as a Faraday cage.',
 'Faraday was an excellent experimentalist who conveyed his ideas in clear and simple language. However, his mathematical abilities did not extend as far as trigonometry or any but the simplest algebra. It was James Clerk Maxwell who took the work of Faraday, and others, and consolidated it with a set of equations that lie at the base of all modern theories of electromagnetic phenomena.',
 'Michael Faraday meets Father Thames, from Punch (July 21, 1855)',
 'Beyond his scientific research into areas such as chemistry, electricity, and magnetism at the Royal Institution, Faraday undertook numerous, and often time-consuming, service projects for private enterprise and the British government. This work included investigations of explosions in mines, being an expert witness in court, and the preparation of high-quality optical glass.',
 'As a respected scientist in a nation with strong maritime interests, Faraday spent extensive amounts of time on projects such as the construction and operation of light houses and protecting the bottoms of ships from corrosion.',
 'Faraday also was active in what would now be called environmental science, or engineering. He investigated industrial pollution at Swansea and was consulted on air pollution at the Royal Mint. In July of 1855, Faraday wrote a letter to The Times on the subject of the foul condition of the River Thames, which resulted in an oft-reprinted cartoon in Punch.  (See also The Great Stink.)',
 'Faraday assisted with planning and judging of exhibits for the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. He also advised the National Gallery on the cleaning and protection of its art collection, and served on the National Gallery Site Commission in 1857.',
 "Education was another area of service for Faraday. He lectured on the topic in 1854 at the Royal Institution, and in 1862 he appeared before a Public Schools Commission to give his views on education in Great Britain. Faraday also weighed in, negatively, on the public's fascination with table-turning, mesmerism, and seances, chastising both the public and the nation's educational system. See The Illustrated London News, July 1853, for Faraday's comments.",
 '125px',
 'In June of 1832, the University of Oxford granted Faraday a Doctor of Civil Law degree (honorary). During his lifetime, Faraday rejected a knighthood and twice refused to become President of the Royal Society.',
 "In 1848, as a result of representations by the Prince Consort, Michael Faraday was awarded a grace and favour house in  Hampton Court, Surrey free of all expenses or upkeep. This was the Master Mason's House, later called Faraday House, and now No.37 Hampton Court Road. In 1858 Faraday retired to live there.   Twickenham Museum on Faraday and Faraday House, Accessed June 2006",
 "Faraday died at his house at Hampton Court on August 25, 1867. He turned down burial in Westminster Abbey, but he has a memorial plaque there, near Isaac Newton's tomb. Faraday was interred in the Sandemanian plot in Highgate Cemetery.",
 "Michael Faraday's grave at Highgate Cemetery",
 'Faraday gave a successful series of lectures on the chemistry and physics of flames at the Royal Institution, entitled The Chemical History of a Candle. This was one of the earlier Christmas lectures for young people, which are still given each year. Between 1827 and 1860, Faraday gave the Christmas lecture a record nineteen times.',
 'Faraday refused to participate in the production of chemical weapons for the Crimean War citing ethical reasons.',
 'A statue of Faraday stands in Savoy Place, London, outside the Institution of Electrical Engineers.',
 'A recently built hall of accommodation at Brunel University is named after Faraday.',
 "A hall at Loughborough University was named after Faraday in 1960. Near the entrance to its dining hall is a bronze casting, which depicts the symbol of an electrical transformer, and inside there hangs a portrait, both in Faraday's honour.",
 "Faraday's picture was printed on British £20 banknotes from 1991 until 2001.  Bank of England, Withdrawn Notes",
 'In the video game Chromehounds there is a ThermoVision Device named the Faraday.',
 'The former UK Faraday Atmospheric Research Station in Antarctica was named after him.',
 'Faraday was one of the then eight foreign members of the French Academy of Sciences.',
 "Michael Faraday's signature",
 "Faraday's books, with the exception of Chemical Manipulation, were collections of scientific papers or transcriptions of lectures. See page 220 of Hamilton's A Life of Discovery: Michael Faraday, Giant of the Scientific Revolution (2002)   Since his death, Faraday's diary has been published, as have several large volumes of his letters and Faraday's journal from his travels with Davy in 1813 - 1815.",
 '* "One day sir, you may tax it." Faraday\'s reply to William Gladstone, then British Minister of Finance, when asked of the practical value of electricity.',
 '* "If you would cause your view ... to be acknowledged by scientific men; you would do a great service to science. If you would even get them to say yes or no to your conclusions it would help to clear the future progress. I believe some hesitate because they do not like their thoughts disturbed." From Life and Letters, 2:389.',
 '* Tyndall, John, Faraday as a Discoverer, (Longmans, 1st ed. 1868, 2nd ed. 1870).',
 '* Bence Jones, Henry (1870). The Life and Letters of Faraday in 2 vols, Longmans.',
 '* Gladstone, J. H. (1872). Michael Faraday, Macmillan.',
 '* The British Electrical and Allied Manufacturers Association (1931). Faraday. R. & R. Clark, Ltd., Edinburgh, 1931.',
 '* Williams, L. Pearce (1971), Faraday: A Biography, Simon and Schuster. ',
 '* Agassi, Joseph (1971), Faraday as a Natural Philosopher, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.',
 '150px',
 '* "Faraday" at LoveToKnow 1911 Britannica Online Encyclopedia. ',
 '* "Experimental Researches in Electricity" by Michael Faraday Original text with Biographical Introduction by Professor John Tyndall, 1914, Everyman edition.',
 'Anders Celsius',
 'The observatory of Anders Celsius, from a contemporary engraving.',
 'Anders Celsius (November 27, 1701   April 25, 1744) was a Swedish astronomer.',
 'Celsius was born in Uppsala in Sweden. He was professor of astronomy at Uppsala University from 1730 to 1744, but traveled from 1732 to 1735 visiting notable observatories in Germany, Italy and France.',
 'At Nuremberg in 1733 he published a collection of 316 observations of the aurora borealis made by himself and others over the period 1716-1732. In Paris he advocated the measurement of an arc of the meridian in Lapland, and in 1736 took part in the expedition organized for that purpose by the French Academy of Sciences, led by the French mathematician Pierre Louis Maupertuis.',
 "Celsius founded the Uppsala Astronomical Observatory in 1741, and in 1742 he proposed the Celsius temperature scale in a paper to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. His thermometer had 100 for the freezing point of water and 0 for the boiling point. The scale was reversed by Carolus Linnaeus in 1745, to how it is today  Linnaeus' thermometer .",
 'Anders Celsius was the first to perform and publish careful experiments aiming at the definition of an international temperature scale on scientific grounds. In his Swedish paper "Observations of two persistent degrees on a thermometer" he reports on experiments to check that the freezing point is independent of latitude (and of atmospheric pressure). He determined the dependence of the boiling of water with atmospheric pressure (in excellent agreement with modern data). He further gave a rule for the determination of the boiling point if the barometric pressure deviates from a certain standard pressure  History of the Celsius temperature scale .',
 'In 1744 he died of tuberculosis in Uppsala, and was buried in the Old Uppsala Church.',
 'The Celsius crater on the Moon is named after him.',
 "Millard Fillmore (January 7, 1800   March 8, 1874) was the thirteenth President of the United States, serving from 1850 until 1853, and the last member of the Whig Party to hold that office. He was the second Vice President to assume the Presidency upon the death of a sitting President, succeeding Zachary Taylor who died of acute gastroenteritis. Fillmore was never elected President; after serving out Taylor's term, he failed to gain the nomination for the Presidency of the Whigs in the 1852 presidential election, and, four years later, in the 1856 presidential election, he again failed to win election as President as the Know Nothing Party and Whig candidate.",
 'Fillmore was born in a log cabin in Summerhill, New York, to Nathaniel and Phoebe Millard Fillmore, as the second of nine children and the eldest son.    Though a Unitarian in later life,   ',
 "Fillmore was descended from Scottish Presbyterians on his father's side and English dissenters on his mother's. He was first apprenticed to a fuller to learn the cloth-making trade. He also served as a home guard in the New York militia for some time. He struggled to obtain an education under frontier conditions, attending New Hope Academy for six months.",
 "He fell in love with Abigail Powers, whom he later married on February 26, 1826. The couple had two children, Millard Powers Fillmore and Mary Abigail Fillmore. Later, Fillmore bought out his apprenticeship and moved to Buffalo, New York, to continue his studies. He was admitted to the bar in 1823 and began his law practice in East Aurora. In 1834, he formed a law partnership, Fillmore and Hall (becoming Fillmore, Hall and Haven in 1836), with his good friend Nathan K. Hall (who would later serve in his cabinet as Postmaster General).      It would become one of western New York's most prestigious firms.   ",
 'In 1846, he founded the private University of Buffalo, which today is the public State University of New York at Buffalo (UB, University at Buffalo), the largest school in the New York state university system.',
 'Engraving of Millard FillmoreIn 1828, Fillmore was elected to the New York State Assembly on the Anti-Masonic ticket, serving for one term, from 1829 to 1831. He was later elected as a Whig (having followed his mentor Thurlow Weed into the party) to the 23rd Congress in 1832, serving from 1833 to 1835. He was re-elected in 1836 to the 25th Congress, to the 26th and to the 27th Congresses and serving from in total from 1833 to 1843, declining to be a candidate for re-nomination in 1842.',
 'In Congress, he opposed the entrance of Texas as a slave territory.  He came in second place in the bid for Speaker of the House of Representatives in 1841. He served as chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee from 1841 to 1843 and was an author of the Tariff of 1842, as well as two other bills that President John Tyler vetoed.',
 "After leaving Congress, Fillmore was the unsuccessful Whig candidate for Governor of New York in 1844. He served as New York State Comptroller from 1847 to 1849. As state comptroller, he revised New York's banking system, making it a model for the future National Banking System.",
 'At the Whig national convention in 1848, the nomination of Gen. Zachary Taylor for president angered the supporters of Henry Clay as well as the opponents of slavery extension into the territory gained by the U.S.-Mexican War. A group of practical Whig politicians nominated Fillmore for vice president, believing that he would heal party wounds and help the ticket carry New York state.',
 "Taylor/Fillmore campaign posterHaving worked his way up through the Whig Party in New York, Fillmore was selected as Taylor's running mate. (It was thought that the obscure, self-made candidate from New York would complement Taylor, a slave-holding military man from the south.)",
 "Fillmore was also selected in part to block New York state machine boss Thurlow Weed from receiving the vice presidential nomination (and his front man William H. Seward from receiving a position in Taylor's cabinet). Weed ultimately got Seward elected to the senate. This competition between Seward and Fillmore led to Seward's becoming a more vocal part of cabinet meetings and having more of a voice than Fillmore in advising the administration. The battle would continue even after Taylor's death.",
 'Taylor and Fillmore disagreed on the slavery issue in the new western territories taken from Mexico in the Mexican-American War. Taylor wanted the new states to be free states, while Fillmore supported slavery in those states as a means of appeasing the South. In his own words: "God knows that I detest slavery, but it is an existing evil ... and we must endure it and give it such protection as is guaranteed by the Constitution."',
 "Fillmore presided over the Senate during the months of nerve-wracking debates over the Compromise of 1850. During one debate, Senator Henry S. Foote of Mississippi pulled a pistol on Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri. Fillmore made no public comment on the merits of the compromise proposals, but a few days before President Taylor's death, Fillmore suggested to the president that, should there be a tie vote on Henry Clay's bill, he would vote in favor of the North.",
 "Official White House portrait of Millard FillmoreFillmore ascended to the presidency upon the sudden and unexpected death of President Taylor in July 1850.  The change in leadership also signaled an abrupt political shift in the administration, as Fillmore removed Taylor's entire cabinet, replacing them with individuals known to be favorable to the Compromise efforts.  Fillmore signaled this shift by appointing Daniel Webster as his Secretary of State.",
 'As president, Fillmore dealt with increasing party divisions within the Whig party; party harmony became one of his primary objectives. He tried to unite the party by pointing out the differences between the Whigs and the Democrats (by proposing tariff reforms that negatively reflected on the Democratic Party). Another primary objective of Fillmore was to preserve the Union from the intensifying slavery debate.',
 "Henry Clay's proposed bill to admit California to the Union still aroused all the violent arguments for and against the extension of slavery without any progress toward settling the major issues (the South continued to threaten secession). Fillmore recognized that Clay's plan was the best way to end the sectional crisis (California free state, harsher fugitive slave law, abolish slave trade in DC).  Clay, exhausted, left Washington to recuperate, passing leadership to Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois. At this critical juncture, President Fillmore announced his support of the Compromise of 1850.",
 'On August 6, 1850, he sent a message to Congress recommending that Texas be paid to abandon its claims to part of New Mexico. This helped shift a critical number of northern Whigs in Congress away from their insistence upon the Wilmot Proviso-â\x80\x94the stipulation that all land gained by the Mexican War must be closed to slavery.',
 "Douglas's effective strategy in Congress combined with Fillmore's pressure gave impetus to the Compromise movement. Breaking up Clay's single legislative package, Douglas presented five separate bills to the Senate: ",
 '*Admit California as a free state. ',
 '*Settle the Texas boundary and compensate the state for lost lands. ',
 '*Grant territorial status to New Mexico. ',
 '*Place federal officers at the disposal of slaveholders seeking escapeesâ\x80\x94the Fugitive Slave Act.',
 '*Abolish the slave trade in the District of Columbia.',
 'Each measure obtained a majority, and, by September 20, President Fillmore had signed them into law. Webster wrote, "I can now sleep of nights."',
 'Portrait of Millard FillmoreWhigs on both sides refused to accept the finality of Fillmore\'s law (which led to more party division, and a loss of numerous elections), which forced Northern Whigs to say "God Save us from Whig Vice Presidents."',
 "Fillmore's greatest difficulty with the fugitive slave law was how to enforce it without seeming to show favor towards Southern Whigs. His solution was to appease both northern and southern Whigs by calling for the enforcement of the fugitive slave law in the North, and enforcing in the South a law forbidding involvement in Cuba (for the sole purpose of adding it as a slave state).",
 "Another issue that presented itself during Fillmore's presidency was the arrival of Louis Kossuth (exiled leader of a failed Hungarian revolution). Kossuth wanted the United States to abandon its non-intervention policies when it came to European affairs and recognize Hungaryâ\x80\x99s independence. The problem came with the enormous support Kossuth received from German-American immigrants to the United States (who were essential in the re-election of both Whigs and Democrats). Fillmore refused to change American policy, and decided to remain neutral despite the political implications that neutrality would produce.",
 "Another important legacy of Fillmore's administration was the sending of Commodore Matthew C. Perry to open Japan to Western trade, though Perry did not reach Japan until Franklin Pierce had replaced Fillmore as president.",
 'Fillmore appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:',
 'Some northern Whigs remained irreconcilable, refusing to forgive Fillmore for having signed the Fugitive Slave Act. They helped deprive him of the Presidential nomination in 1852. Within a few years it was apparent that although the Compromise had been intended to settle the slavery controversy, it served rather as an uneasy sectional truce.',
 'Because the Whig party was so deeply divided, and the two leading candidates for the Whig party (Webster and Fillmore) refused to combine to secure the nomination, Winfield Scott received it. Because both the north and the south refused to unite behind Scott, he won only 4 of 31 states, and lost the election to Franklin Pierce.',
 "After Fillmore's defeat the Whig party continued its downward spiral with further party division coming at the hands of the Kansas Nebraska Act, and the emergence of the Know Nothing party.",
 'Statue of Fillmore outside City Hall in downtown Buffalo, New York.',
 'Fillmore was one of the founders of the University of Buffalo. The school was chartered by an act of the New York State Legislature on May 11, 1846, and at first was only a medical school.  Fillmore was the first Chancellor, a position he maintained while both Vice President and President.  Upon completing his presidency, Fillmore returned to Buffalo, where he continued to serve as chancellor.',
 'After the death of his daughter Mary, Fillmore went abroad. While touring Europe in 1855, Fillmore was offered an honorary Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.) degree by the University of Oxford.  Fillmore turned down the honor, explaining that he had neither the "literary nor scientific attainment" to justify the degree.  He is also quoted as having explained that he "lacked the benefit of a classical education" and could not, therefore, understand the Latin text of the diploma, then joking that he believed "no man should accept a degree he cannot read."',
 "Fillmore/Donelson campaign poster.By 1856, Fillmore's Whig Party had ceased to exist, having fallen apart due to dissension over the slavery issue, and especially the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854.  Fillmore refused to join the new Republican Party, where many former Whigs, including Abraham Lincoln, had found refuge.  Instead, Fillmore joined the anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic American Party, the political organ of the Know-Nothing movement.",
 "He ran in the election of 1856 as the party's candidate, attempting to win a non-consecutive second term as President (a feat accomplished only once in American politics, by Grover Cleveland).  His running mate was Andrew Jackson Donelson, nephew of former president Andrew Jackson. Fillmore and Donelson finished third, carrying only the state of Maryland and its eight electoral votes; but he won 21.6% of the popular vote, one of the best showings ever by a Presidential third-party candidate.",
 'On February 10, 1858, after the death of his first wife, Fillmore married Caroline McIntosh, a wealthy widow. Their combined wealth allowed them to purchase a big house in Buffalo, New York. The house became the center of hospitality for visitors, until her health began to decline in the 1860s.',
 'Throughout the Civil War, Fillmore opposed President Lincoln and during Reconstruction supported President Johnson. He commanded the Union Continentals, a corps of home guards of males over the age of 45 from the Upstate New York area, during the Civil War.',
 'He died at 11:10 p.m. on March 8, 1874, of the after-effects of a stroke.  His last words were alleged to be, upon being fed some soup, "the nourishment is palatable."  On January 7 each year, a ceremony is held at his grave site in the Forest Lawn Cemetery in Buffalo.',
 '*The 80s sitcom Head of the Class took place at the fictional "Millard Fillmore High School".',
 '*ESPN anchor Neil Everett often makes references to Millard Fillmore while hosting Sportscenter.',
 '*The comic strip Mallard Fillmore is named after the president.',
 "*In 2007, George Pendle wrote The Remarkable Millard Fillmore, a fake biography based on real events that happened in Fillmore's life. Pendle mixes such imagined events as Fillmore fighting at the Battle of the Alamo with equally improbable, but actually true events, such as the fact that Fillmore's great-grandfather, John Fillmore, was abducted by pirates, organized a mutiny aboard the pirate ship, and killed the pirate captain, before sailing the ship back into Boston harbor.",
 '*In one episode in American Dragon, the statue of Millard Fillmore was shown to the parents in a parent-teacher meeting by Professor Rokwood.',
 '*In an episode of Johnny Bravo, Johnny (in a partially delirious state) speaks to a statue of Millard Filmore.',
 'Millard Fillmore postage stamp',
 '*In 1855, Fillmore, who had no classical education, refused an honorary doctorate of civil law from Oxford University claiming that he would not accept a degree he could not read.  It should be noted that most university diplomas were inscribed in Latin in those days. ',
 "*Queen Victoria said that Millard Fillmore was the handsomest man she'd ever seen.",
 '*Fillmore, a bookworm, found the White House devoid of books and initiated the White House library. ',
 '*As of 2007, Millard Fillmore remains the last U.S. president who was neither a Democrat nor a Republican (although Abraham Lincoln was re-elected in 1864 running on the National Union Party ticket with Democrat Andrew Johnson as his running mate).',
 "*Fillmore was the first U.S. President born after the death of a former president, as he was born three weeks after George Washington's death on December 14, 1799.",
 '*Fillmore is the first of two presidents to have been an indentured servant. He was a clothmaker.',
 'United States presidential election, 1848',
 'United States presidential election, 1856',
 '* Holt, Michael F. "Millard Fillmoreâ\x80\x9d. The American Presidency. Ed.Alan Brinkley,Davis Dyer.2004.145-151.',
 'Deusen, Van Glydon. "The American Presidency". Encyclopedia Americana. Accessed 9, May 2007.  ',
 "Blaise Pascal ( ), (June 19 1623   August 19 1662) was a French mathematician, physicist, and religious philosopher. He was a child prodigy who was educated by his father. Pascal's earliest work was in the natural and applied sciences where he made important contributions to the construction of mechanical calculators, the study of fluids, and clarified the concepts of pressure and vacuum by generalizing the work of Evangelista Torricelli. Pascal also wrote in defense of the scientific method.",
 'He was a mathematician of the first order. Pascal helped create two major new areas of research. He wrote a significant treatise on the subject of projective geometry at the age of sixteen and corresponded with Pierre de Fermat from 1654 and later on probability theory, strongly influencing the development of modern economics and social science.',
 'Following a mystical experience in late 1654, he abandoned his scientific work and devoted himself to philosophy and theology. His two most famous works date from this period: the Lettres provinciales and the Pensées. Pascal suffered from ill health throughout his life and died two months after his 39th birthday.',
 'Born in Clermont-Ferrand, in the Auvergne region of France, Blaise Pascal lost his mother, Antoinette Begon, at the age of three. His father, Ã\x89tienne Pascal (1588â\x80\x931651), was a local judge and member of the "noblesse de robe", who also had an interest in science and mathematics. Blaise Pascal was brother to Jacqueline Pascal the youngest sibling and Gilberte, the eldest.',
 'In 1631, shortly after the death of his wife, Ã\x89tienne Pascal moved with his children to Paris. Ã\x89tienne, who never remarried, decided that he alone would educate his children, for they all showed extraordinary intellectual ability, particularly his son Blaise.  The young Pascal showed an amazing  aptitude for mathematics and science. At the age of eleven, he composed a short treatise on the sounds of vibrating bodies and Ã\x89tienne responded by forbidding his son to further pursue mathematics until the age of fifteen so as not to harm his study of Latin and Greek. One day, however, Ã\x89tienne found Blaise (now twelve) writing an independent proof that the sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles with a piece of coal on a wall. From then on, the boy was allowed to study Euclid; perhaps more importantly, he was allowed to sit in as a silent on-looker at the gatherings of some of the greatest mathematicians and scientists in Europeâ\x80\x94such as Roberval, Desargues, Mydorge, Gassendi, and Descartesâ\x80\x94in the monastic cell of Père Mersenne. ',
 'An early Pascaline on display at the Musée des Arts et Métiers in the Louvre Museum, Paris.',
 'Particularly of interest to Pascal was a work of Desargues on conic sections. Following Desargues\'s thinking, the sixteen-year-old Pascal produced, as a means of proof, a short treatise on what was called the "Mystic Hexagram" (conic sections), Essai pour les coniques ("Essay on Conics").  And sent it - his first serious work of mathematicsâ\x80\x94to Père Mersenne in Paris; it is known still today as  Pascal\'s theorem. ',
 'Briefly, it can be explained thus:',
 '* 2. Take a simple plane and slice the cone in two going across.',
 '* 3. If the plane is straight across, the section cut out will be a circle.',
 '* 4. If the plane is at an angle, the section cut out will be an ellipse. This is the more general case, because ellipses can be squat or long, thin or nearly round: Because Pascal wanted to prove a general theorem, he took the case of an ellipse.',
 '* 5. Draw a six sided figure inside the ellipse. The figure does not have to be regular, and may intersect itself.',
 '* 6. Now take a pencil and make big dots on the vertices of the hexagram, and draw lines between the vertices. Then, extend the lines out to where they cross.',
 "Pascal's work was so precocious that Descartes, when shown the manuscript, refused to believe that the composition was not by the elder Pascal. ",
 'When assured by Mersenne that it was, indeed, the product of the son not the father, Descartes dismissed it with a sniff: "I do not find it strange that he has offered demonstrations about conics more appropriate than those of the ancients," adding, "but other matters related to this subject can be proposed that would scarcely occur to a sixteen-year-old child." The Story of Civilization: Volume 8, "The Age of Louis XIV" by Will & Ariel Durant; chapter II, subsection 4.1 (pg. 56)',
 "In France at that time offices and positions could beâ\x80\x94and wereâ\x80\x94bought and sold. In 1631 Ã\x89tienne sold his position as second president of the Cour des Aides for 65,665 livres. Connor, James A., Pascal's Wager(HarperCollins, NY,  2006)p.42  The money was invested in a government bond which provided if not a lavish then certainly a comfortable income which allowed the Pascal family to move to, and enjoy, Paris. But in 1638 Richelieu desperate for money to carry on the Thirty Year War found it by defaulting on the government's bonds. Suddenly Ã\x89tienne Pascal's worth had dropped from nearly 66,000 livres to less than 7,300.",
 "Like so many others, Ã\x89tienne's opposition to the fiscal policies of Cardinal Richelieu eventually forced him to flee Paris, leaving his three children in the care of his neighbor Madame Sainctot, a great beauty with an infamous past who kept one of the most glittering and intellectual salons in all France. It was only when Jacqueline performed well in a children's play with Richelieu in attendance that Ã\x89tienne was pardoned. In time Ã\x89tienne was back in good graces with the cardinal, and in 1639 had been appointed the king's commissioner of taxes in the city of Rouen â\x80\x94 a city whose tax records, thanks to uprisings, were in utter chaos.",
 "In 1642, in an effort to ease his father's endless, exhausting calculations, and recalculations, of taxes owed and paid, Pascal, not yet nineteen,  constructed a mechanical calculator capable of addition and subtraction, called Pascal's calculator or the Pascaline.  The Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris and the Zwinger museum in Dresden, Germany, exhibit one of his original mechanical calculators. Though these machines are early forerunners to computer engineering, the calculator failed to be a great commercial success. Because it was extraordinarily expensive the Pascaline became little more than a toy, and status symbol, for the very rich both in France and throughout Europe; however Pascal continued to make improvements to his design through the next decade and built fifty machines in total.",
 'Portrait of Blaise Pascal',
 'In addition to the childhood marvels previously mentioned, Pascal continued to influence mathematics throughout his life.  In 1653, Pascal wrote his Traité du triangle arithmétique ("Treatise on the Arithmetical Triangle") in which he described a convenient tabular presentation for binomial coefficients, now called Pascal\'s triangle. In 1654, prompted by a friend interested in gambling problems, he corresponded with Fermat on the subject, and from that collaboration was born the mathematical theory of probabilities. The friend was the Chevalier de Méré, and the specific problem was that of two players who want to finish a game early and, given the current circumstances of the game, want to divide the stakes fairly, based on the chance each has of winning the game from that point.  From this discussion, the notion of expected value was introduced. Pascal later (in the Pensées) used a probabilistic argument, Pascal\'s Wager, to justify belief in God and a virtuous life. The work done by Fermat and Pascal into the calculus of probabilities laid important groundwork for Leibniz\'s formulation of the infinitesimal calculus.   The Mathematical Leibniz',
 'After a religious experience in 1654, Pascal mostly gave up work in mathematics. However, after a sleepless night in 1658, he anonymously offered a prize for the quadrature of a cycloid.  Solutions were offered by Wallis, Huygens, Wren, and others; Pascal, under a pseudonym, published his own solution.  Controversy and heated argument followed after Pascal announced himself the winner.',
 'Pascal\'s major contribution to the philosophy of mathematics came with his De l\'Esprit géométrique ("On the Geometrical Spirit"), originally written as a preface to a geometry textbook for one of the famous "Little Schools of Port-Royal" (Les Petites-Ecoles de Port-Royal). The work was unpublished until over a century after his death. Here, Pascal looked into the issue of discovering truths, arguing that the ideal of such a method would be to found all propositions on already established truths. At the same time, however, he claimed this was impossible because such established truths would require other truths to back them upâ\x80\x94first principles, therefore, cannot be reached. Based on this, Pascal argued that the procedure used in geometry was as perfect as possible, with certain principles assumed and other propositions developed from them. Nevertheless, there was no way to know the assumed principles to be true.',
 "Pascal also used De l'Esprit géométrique to develop a theory of definition. He distinguished between definitions which are conventional labels defined by the writer and definitions which are within the language and understood by everyone because they naturally designate their referent. The second type would be characteristic of the philosophy of essentialism. Pascal claimed that only definitions of the first type were important to science and mathematics, arguing that those fields should adopt the philosophy of formalism as formulated by Descartes.",
 'In De l\'Art de persuader ("On the Art of Persuasion"), Pascal looked deeper into geometry\'s axiomatic method, specifically the question of how people come to be convinced of the axioms upon which later conclusions are based. Pascal agreed with Montaigne that achieving certainty in these axioms and conclusions through human methods is impossible. He asserted that these principles can only be grasped through intuition, and that this fact underscored the necessity for submission to God in searching out truths.',
 'Pascal\'s work in the fields of the study of hydrodynamics and hydrostatics centered on the principles of hydraulic fluids. His inventions include the hydraulic press (using hydraulic pressure to multiply force) and the syringe. By 1646, Pascal had learned of Evangelista Torricelli\'s experimentation with barometers. Having replicated an experiment which involved placing a tube filled with mercury upside down in a bowl of mercury, Pascal questioned what force kept some mercury in the tube and what filled the space above the mercury in the tube. At the time, most scientists contended that, rather than a vacuum, some invisible matter was present. This was based on the Aristotelian notion that creation was a thing of substance, whether visible or invisible; and this substance was forever in motion. Furthermore, "Everything that is in motion must be moved by something," Aristotle declared. Aristotle,Physics,VII,1.  Ergo, to the Aristotelian trained scientists of Pascal\'s time, a vacuum was an impossibility. How so? As proof it was pointed out:',
 '* Light passed through the so-called "vacuum" in the glass tube.',
 '* Aristotle wrote how everything moved, and must be moved by something.',
 '* Therefore, since there had to be an invisible "something" to move the light through the glass tube, there was no vacuum in the tube. Not in the glass tube or anywhere else. Vacuumsâ\x80\x94the absence of any and everythingâ\x80\x94were simply an impossibility.',
 'Following more experimentation in this vein, in 1647 Pascal produced Experiences nouvelles touchant le vide ("New Experiments with the Vacuum"), which detailed basic rules describing to what degree various liquids could be supported by air pressure. It also provided reasons why it was indeed a vacuum above the column of liquid in a barometer tube.',
 "On September 19, 1648, after many months of Pascal's friendly but insistent prodding, Florin Périer, husband of Pascal's elder sister Gilberte, was finally to carry out the fact finding mission vital to Pascal's theory. The account, written by Périer, reads:",
 'The weather was chancy last Saturday...[but] around five o\'clock that morning...the Puy-de-Dôme was visible...so I decided to give it a try. Several important people of the city of Clermont has asked me to let them know when I made the ascent...I was delighted to have them with me in this great work...\n\n...at eight o\'clock we met in the gardens of the Minim Fathers, which has the lowest elevation in town....First I poured sixteen pounds of quicksilver...in to a vessel...then took several glass tubes..each four feet long and hermetically sealed at one end and opened at the other...then placed them in the vessel [of quicksilver]...I found the quick silver stood at 26" and 3½ lines above the quicksilver in the vessel...I repeated the experiment two more times while standing in the same spot...[they] produced the same result each time...',
 'I attached one of the tubes to the vessel and marked the height of the quicksilver and...asked Father Chastin, one of the Minim Brothers...to watch if any changes should occur through the day...Taking the other tube and a portion of the quick silver...I walked to the top of Puy-de-Dôme, about 500 fathoms higher than the monastery, where upon experiment...found that the quicksilver reached a height of only 23 and 2 lines...I repeated the experiment five times with care...each at different points on the summit...found the same height of quicksilver...in each case..." Périer to Pascal, September 1647,Å\x92uves completes de Pascal, 2:682.',
 'Pascal replicated the experiment in Paris by carrying a barometer up to the top of the bell tower at the church of Saint-Jacques-de-la-Boucherie, a height of about fifty meters. The mercury dropped two lines. These, and other lesser experiments carried out by Pascal, were hailed throughout Europe as establishing the principle and value of the barometer.',
 'In the face of criticism that some invisible matter must exist in Pascal\'s empty space, Pascal, in his reply to Estienne Noel, gave one of the seventeenth century\'s major statements on the scientific method: "In order to show that a hypothesis is evident, it does not suffice that all the phenomena follow from it; instead, if it leads to something contrary to a single one of the phenomena, that suffices to establish its falsity." His insistence on the existence of the vacuum also led to conflict with a number of other prominent scientists, including Descartes.',
 'Pascal studying the cycloid, by Augustin Pajou, 1785, Louvre',
 'Biographically, two basic influences led him to his conversion: sickness and Jansenism.  From as early as his eighteenth year, Pascal suffered from a nervous ailment that left him hardly a day without pain.  In 1647, a paralytic attack so disabled him that he could not move without crutches.  His head ached, his bowels burned, his legs and feet were continually cold, and required wearisome aids to circulate the blood; he wore stockings steeped in brandy to warm his feet.  Partly to get better medical treatment, he moved to Paris with his sister Jacqueline.  His health improved, but his nervous system had been permanently damaged.  Henceforth, he was subject to deepening hypochondria, which affected his character and his philosophy.  He became irritable, subject to fits of proud and imperious anger, and seldom smiled. Sainte-Beuve, Port-Royal, I, 89.',
 'In the winter of 1646, Pascal\'s 58 year-old father broke his hip when he slipped and fell on an icy street of Rouen; given the man\'s age and the state of medicine in the 17th century, a broken hip could be very serious, perhaps even fatal, condition. Fortunately at the time Rouen was home to two of the finest doctors in France: Monsieur Doctor Deslandes, and Monsieur Doctor de La Bouteillerie. The elder Pascal "would not let anyone other than these men attend him...It was a good choice, for the old man survived and was able to walk again..." Connor, James A. Pascal\'s Wager (HarperCollins, 2006)p.70  But treatment and rehabilitation took three months, during which time La Bouteillerie and Deslandes were live-in guests at the Pascal household.',
 'Both men were followers of Jean Guillebert, proponent of a splinter group of the main body of Catholic teaching known as Jansenius. This belief, which, though still fairly small, was making surprising headroads into French catholics, espoused a style of belief of rigorous Augustinism. Blaise spoke with the doctor frequently, and upon his successful treatment of Ã\x89tienne, borrowed works by Jansenist authors through him.  In this period, Pascal experienced a sort of "first conversion" and began in the course of the following year to write on theological subjects.',
 'Pascal fell away from this initial religious engagement and experienced a few years of what he called   a "worldly period" (1648â\x80\x9354).  His father died in 1651, and Pascal gained control over both his inheritance as well as his sister Jacqueline who announced that she intended to become a postulant in the Jansenist convent of Port-Royal by the first of the year. Pascal was deeply affected and very sad, not because of her choice, but because due to his life-long poor health he too needed her.',
 "Suddenly there was war in the Pascal household. Blaise pleaded with Jacqueline not to leave, but she was adamant. He commanded her to stay, but that didn't work, either.At the heart of this was...Blaise's fear of abandonment...if Jacqueline entered Port-Royal, she would have to leave her inheritance behind...[but] nothing would change her mind. Ibid. #4 p.122",
 'By the end of October 1651 a truce had been reached between brother and sister: in return for a respectable annual stipend, Jacqueline signed over inheritance to her brother. (Their eldest sister Gilberte had already been given her inheritance in the form of a handsome dowry.) On 04 January, Jacqueline left for Port-Royal. On that day, according to Gilberte, "He retired very sadly to his rooms without seeing Jacqueline, who was waiting in the little parlor..." Jacqueline Pascal, "Memoir" p. 87 ',
 'On 05 June, 1653, after what must have seemed like endless badgering on the part of Jacqueline,',
 'Pascal formally signed over the whole of his sister\'s inheritance to Port-Royal, which, by this time "had begun to smell like a cult." Ibid.#4 p.124  With two-thirds of his father\'s estate now gone, the 29 year-old Pascal was now consigned to genteel poverty. Jacqueline vowed a life of poverty. Pascal teetered on the brink of living one.',
 'But Time is the best physician. For an exciting while Pascal pursued the life of a foot-loose bachelor, even going so far as giving merry chase while in Auvergne to a lady of beauty and learning, whom he referred to as the "Sappho of the countryside." Pascal, Pensées, Havet ed. Introd., p. civ.   Around this time, Pascal wrote Discours sur les passions de l\'amour ("Conversation about the Passions of Love"), and apparently he contemplated marriage   which he was later to describe as "the lowest of the conditions of life permitted to a Christian." Mesnard, Pascal, 57. ',
 'Jacqueline reproached him for his frivolity and prayed for his reform.  During visits to his sister at Port-Royal in 1654, he displayed contempt for affairs of the world but was not drawn to God. Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 52.',
 'On November 23 1654, Pascal is said to have been involved in an accident at the Neuilly-sur-Seine bridge where the horses plunged over the parapet and the carriage nearly followed them.  Fortunately, the reins broke and the coach hung halfway over the edge.  Pascal and his friends emerged unscathed, but the sensitive philosopher, terrified by the nearness of death, fainted away and remained unconscious for some time.  Upon recovering fifteen days later, between 10:30 and 12:30 at night, Pascal had an intense religious vision and immediately recorded the experience in a brief note to himself which began: "Fire. God of Abraham, God of Isaac, God of Jacob, not of the philosophers and the scholarsâ\x80¦" and concluded by quoting Psalm 119:16: "I will not forget thy word. Amen."  He seems to have carefully sewn this document into his coat and always transferred it when he changed clothes; a servant discovered it only by chance after his death. Oeuvres complètes, 618.  This piece is now known as the Memorial. The story of the carriage accident as having led to the experience described in the Memorial is disputed by some scholars  MathPages, .',
 'His belief and religious commitment revitalized, Pascal visited the older of two convents at Port-Royal for a two-week retreat in January 1655. For the next four years, he regularly travelled between Port-Royal and Paris.  It was at this point immediately after his conversion when he began writing his first major literary work on religion, the Provincial Letters.',
 'Beginning in 1656, Pascal published his memorable attack on casuistry, a popular ethical method used by Catholic thinkers in the early modern period (especially the Jesuits, and in particular Antonio Escobar). Pascal denounced casuistry as the mere use of complex reasoning to justify moral laxity and all sorts of sins. His method of framing his arguments was clever: the Provincial Letters pretended to be the report of a Parisian to a friend in the provinces on the moral and theological issues then exciting the intellectual and religious circles in the capital. Pascal, combining the fervor of a convert with the wit and polish of a man of the world, reached a new level of style in French prose.  The 18-letter series was published between 1656 and 1657 under the pseudonym Louis de Montalte and incensed Louis XIV. The king ordered that the book be shredded and burnt in 1660. In 1661, in the midsts of the formulary controversy, the Jansenist school at Port-Royal was condemned and closed down; those involved with the school had to sign a 1656 papal bull condemning the teachings of Jansen as heretical.  The final letter from Pascal, in 1657, had defied the Pope himself, provoking Alexander VII to condemn the letters.  But that didn\'t stop all of educated France from reading them.  Even Pope Alexander, while publicly opposing them, nonetheless was persuaded by Pascal\'s arguments.  He condemned "laxism" in the church and ordered a revision of casuistical texts just a few years later (1665â\x80\x9366).',
 "Aside from their religious influence, the Provincial Letters were popular as a literary work. Pascal's use of humor, mockery, and vicious satire in his arguments made the letters ripe for public consumption, and influenced the prose of later French writers like Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.",
 "When Pascal was back in Paris just after overseeing the publication of the last Letter, his religion was reinforced by the close association to an apparent miracle in the chapel of the Port-Royal nunnery.  His 10-year-old niece, Marguerite Périer, was suffering from a painful fistula lacrymalis that exuded noisome pus through her eyes and noseâ\x80\x94an affliction the doctors pronounced hopeless.  Then, on March 24, 1657, a believer presented to Port-Royal what he and others claimed to be a thorn from the crown that had tortured Christ.  The nuns, in solemn ceremony and singing psalms, placed the thorn on their altar.  Each in turn kissed the relic, and one of them, seeing Marguerite among the worshipers, took the thorn and with it touched the girl's sore.  That evening, we are told, Marguerite expressed surprise that her eye no longer pained her; her mother was astonished to find no sign of the fistula; a physician, summoned, reported that the discharge and swelling had disappeared.  He, not the nuns, spread word of what he termed a miraculous cure.  Seven other physicians who had had previous knowledge of Marguerite's fistula signed a statement that in their judgment a miracle had taken place.  The diocesan officials investigated, came to the same conclusion, and authorized a Te Deum Mass in Port-Royal.  Crowds of believers came to see and kiss the thorn; all of Catholic Paris acclaimed a miracle.  Later, both Jansenists and Catholics used this well-documented miracle to their defense.  In 1728, Pope Benedict XIII referred to the case as proving that the age of miracles had not passed.",
 'Pascal made himself an armorial emblem of an eye surrounded by a crown of thorns, with the inscription Scio cui credidiâ\x80\x94"I know whom I have believed." Sainte-Beuve, Port-Royal, III, 173f.; Beard, Charles, Port-Royal, I 84.   His beliefs renewed, he set his mind to write his final, unfinished testament, the Pensées.',
 'Unfortunately, Pascal could not finish his most influential theological work, referred posthumously as the Pensées ("Thoughts"), before his death.  It was to have been a sustained and coherent examination of and defense of the Christian faith, with the original title Apologie de la religion Chrétienne ("Defense of the Christian Religion").  What was found upon sifting through his personal items after his death were numerous scraps of paper with isolated thoughts, grouped in a tentative, but telling, order.  The first version of the detached notes appeared in print as a book in 1670 titled Pensées de M. Pascal sur la religion, et sur quelques autres sujets ("Thoughts of M. Pascal on religion, and on other subjects") and soon thereafter became a classic. One of the Apology\'s main strategy was to use the contradictory philosophies of skepticism and stoicism, personnalized by Montaigne on one hand, and Epictetus on the other, in order to bring the unbeliever to such despair and confusion that he would embrace God. This strategy was deemed quite hazardous by Pierre Nicole, Antoine Arnauld and other friends and scholars of Port-Royal, who were concerned that these fragmentary "thoughts" might lead to skepticism rather than to piety. Henceforth, they concealed the skeptical pieces and modified some of the rest, lest King or Church should take offense Pascal, Pensées, Introduction, p. xxviii; Mesnard, Pascal, 137â\x80\x93138.  for at that time the persecution of Port-Royal had ceased, and the editors were not interested in a renewal of controversy.  Not until the nineteenth century were the Pensées published in their full and authentic text.',
 'Pascal\'s Pensées is widely considered to be a masterpiece, and a landmark in French prose.  When commenting on one particular section (Thought #72), Sainte-Beuve praised it as the finest pages in the French language. Sainte-Beuve, Seventeenth Century, 174.   Will Durant, in his 11-volume, comprehensive The Story of Civilization series, hailed it as "the most eloquent book in French prose." The Story of Civilization: Volume 8, "The Age of Louis XIV" by Will & Ariel Durant, chapter II, Subsection 4.4 (pg. 66)   In Pensées, Pascal surveys several philosophical paradoxes: infinity and nothing, faith and reason, soul and matter, death and life, meaning and vanityâ\x80\x94seemingly arriving at no definitive conclusions besides humility, ignorance, and grace.  Rolling these into one he develops Pascal\'s Wager.',
 "Pascal's epitaph in Saint-Ã\x89tienne-du-Mont, where he was buried",
 'T. S. Eliot described him during this phase of his life as "a man of the world among ascetics, and an ascetic among men of the world." Pascal\'s ascetic lifestyle derived from a belief that it was natural and necessary for man to suffer. In 1659, Pascal, whose health had never been good, fell seriously ill. During his last years, he frequently tried to reject the ministrations of his doctors, saying, "Sickness is the natural state of Christians." Muir, 104.',
 'Louis XIV suppressed the Jansenist movement at Port-Royal in 1661. In response, Pascal wrote one of his final works, Ã\x89crit sur la signature du formulaire ("Writ on the Signing of the Form"), exhorting the Jansenists not to give in. Later that year, his sister Jacqueline died, which convinced Pascal to cease his polemics on Jansenism. Pascal\'s last major achievement, returning to his mechanical genius, was inaugurating perhaps the first bus line, moving passengers within Paris in a carriage with many seats.',
 'In 1662, Pascal\'s illness became more violent. Aware that his health was fading quickly, he sought a move to the hospital for incurable diseases, but his doctors declared that he was too unstable to be carried. In Paris on August 18, 1662, Pascal went into convulsions and received extreme unction. He died the next morning, his last words being "May God never abandon me," and was buried in the cemetery of Saint-Ã\x89tienne-du-Mont. Muir, 104.',
 'An autopsy performed after his death revealed grave problems with his stomach and other organs of his abdomen, along with damage to his brain. Despite the autopsy, the cause of his continual poor health was never precisely determined, though speculation focuses on tuberculosis, stomach cancer, or a combination of the two. Muir, 103.  The headaches which afflicted Pascal are generally attributed to his brain lesion.',
 "In honor of his scientific contributions, the name Pascal has been given to the SI unit of pressure, to a programming language, and Pascal's law (an important principle of hydrostatics), and as mentioned above, Pascal's triangle and Pascal's wager still bear his name.",
 'Pascal\'s development of probability theory was his most influential contribution to mathematics. Originally applied to gambling, today it is extremely important in economics, especially in actuarial science. John Ross writes, "Probability theory and the discoveries following it changed the way we regard uncertainty, risk, decision-making, and an individual\'s and society\'s ability to influence the course of future events."  However, it should be noted that Pascal and Fermat, though doing important early work in probability theory, did not develop the field very far. Christiaan Huygens, learning of the subject from the correspondence of Pascal and Fermat, wrote the first book on the subject. Later figures who continued the development of the theory include Abraham de Moivre and Pierre-Simon Laplace.',
 'In literature, Pascal is regarded as one of the most important authors of the French Classical Period and is read today as one of the greatest masters of French prose. His use of satire and wit influenced later polemicists. The content of his literary work is best remembered for its strong opposition to the rationalism of René Descartes and simultaneous assertion that the main countervailing philosophy, empiricism, was also insufficient for determining major truths.',
 'In France, a prestigious annual competition is held for outstanding international scientists to conduct their research in the Ile de France region named after Pascal (the Blaise Pascal Chair).',
 'In Canada, there is an annual math contest named in his honour. The Pascal Contest is open to any student in Canada who is fourteen years or under and is in grade nine or lower.',
 "A discussion of Pascal figures prominently in the movie My Night At Maud's by the French director Ã\x89ric Rohmer.",
 'Roberto Rossellini directed a filmed biopic (entitled Blaise Pascal) which originally aired on Italian television in 1971. Pierre Arditi starred as Pascal.',
 '* Davidson, Hugh M. Blaise Pascal. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1983.',
 '* Farrell, John. "Pascal and Power". Chapter seven of Paranoia and Modernity: Cervantes to Rousseau (Cornell UP, 2006).',
 '* Miel, Jan. Pascal and Theology. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1969. ',
 '* Pascal, Blaise. Oeuvres complètes. Paris: Seuil, 1960.',
 "*  Pascal's Memorial in orig. French/Latin and modern English, trans. Elizabeth T. Knuth.",
 "* Etext of a number of Pascal's  minor works (English translation) including, among others, De l'Esprit géométrique and De l'Art de persuader.",
 '*  "Pascal\'s Legacy", an article by John Ross on the influence of Pascal\'s probability theory.',
 '* Blaise Pascal College No.70: A Rosicrucian (SRIA) college named after Pascal.',
 'Abraham Lincoln (February 12, 1809 â\x80\x93 April 15, 1865) was the sixteenth President of the United States, serving from March 4, 1861 until his assassination. As an outspoken opponent of the expansion of slavery in the United States, "[I]n his short autobiography written for the 1860 presidential campaign, Lincoln would describe his protest in the Illinois legislature as one that \'briefly defined his position on the slavery question, and so far as it goes, it was then the same that it is now." This was in reference to the anti-expansion sentiments he had then expressed. Doris Kearns Goodwin, Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln (2005) p. 91.  Holzer pg. 232.  Writing of the Cooper Union  speech, Holzer notes, "Cooper Union proved a unique confluence of political culture, rhetorical opportunity, technological innovation, and human genius, and it brought Abraham Lincoln to the center stage of American politics at precisely the right time and place, and with precisely the right message: that slavery was wrong, and ought to be confined to the areas where it already existed, and placed on the \'course of ultimate extinction... .\'"  Lincoln won the Republican Party nomination in 1860 and was elected president later that year. During his term, he helped preserve the United States by leading the defeat of the secessionist Confederate States of America in the American Civil War. He introduced measures that resulted in the abolition of slavery, issuing his Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 and promoting the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution in 1865.',
 'Lincoln closely supervised the victorious war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including Ulysses S. Grant. Historians have concluded that he handled the factions of the Republican Party well, bringing leaders of each faction into his cabinet and forcing them to cooperate. Lincoln successfully defused a war scare with the United Kingdom in 1861. Under his leadership, the Union took control of the border slave states at the start of the war. Additionally, he managed his own reelection in the 1864 presidential election.',
 'Opponents of the war (also known as "Copperheads") criticized him for refusing to compromise on the slavery issue. Conversely, the Radical Republicans, an abolitionist faction of the Republican Party, criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery. Even with these problems, Lincoln successfully rallied public opinion through his rhetoric and speeches; his Gettysburg Address is but one example of this. At the close of the war, Lincoln held a moderate view of Reconstruction, seeking to speedily reunite the nation through a policy of generous reconciliation. His assassination in 1865 was the first presidential assassination in U.S. history and made him a martyr for the ideal of national unity.',
 'Scholars now rank Lincoln among the top three U.S. Presidents, with the majority of those surveyed placing him first. He is noted for his lasting influence on U.S. politics, including a redefinition of republicanism.  As Diggins explains, "Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself." John Patrick Diggins, The Lost Soul of American Politics: Virtue, Self-interest, and the Foundations of Liberalism (1986) p. 307. Foner (1970) p. 215 noted that, "Lincoln stressed the moral basis of Republicanism." Jaffa (2000) p. 399, stresses Lincoln\'s emphasis on the Declaration of Independence as what Lincoln called the "sheet anchor" of republicanism. See also McPherson (1992) pp.61-64.',
 'Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, to Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks, two uneducated farmers. Lincoln was born in a one-room log cabin on the   Sinking Spring Farm, in southeast Hardin County, Kentucky (now part of LaRue County). This area was at the time considered the "frontier." The name "Abraham" was chosen to commemorate his grandfather, who was killed in an American Indian raid in 1786. Donald (1995) p 21  His elder sister, Sarah Lincoln, was born in 1807; a younger brother, Thomas Jr, died in infancy. It is sometimes debated whether Lincoln had Marfan syndrome, an autosomal dominant disorder of the connective tissue characterized by long limbs and great physical stature.  Marfan syndrome: Introduction Aug 1, 2006',
 'Symbolic log cabin at Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site.',
 "For some time, Thomas Lincoln was a respected and relatively affluent citizen of the Kentucky back country. He had purchased the Sinking Spring Farm in December of 1808 for $200 cash and assumption of a debt.  The farm site is now preserved as part of Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site.  The family belonged to a Baptist church that had seceded from a larger church over the issue of slavery. Though Lincoln was exposed to his parents' anti-slavery sentiment from a very young age, he never joined their church, or any other church for that matter.  As a youth he had little use for religion. Life of Abraham Lincoln, Colonel Ward H. Lamon, 1872 - portions reprinted in  Chapter VIII: Abraham Lincoln, Deist, and Admirer of Thomas Paine, From the book Religious Beliefs of Our Presidents by Franklin Steiner (1936)",
 'Lincoln was just seven years old when, in 1816, the family was forced to make a new start in Perry County (now in Spencer County), Indiana. He later noted that this move was "partly on account of slavery," and partly because of difficulties with land deeds in Kentucky: Unlike land in the Northwest Territory, Kentucky never had a proper U.S. survey, and farmers often had difficulties proving title to their property. Lincoln was only nine when his mother, then thirty-four years old, died of milk sickness. Soon afterwards, his father remarried  to Sarah Bush Johnston. Sarah Lincoln raised young Lincoln like one of her own children. Years later she compared Lincoln to her own son, saying "Both were good boys, but I must say â\x80\x94 both now being dead that Abe was the best boy I ever saw or ever expect to see." Lincoln was affectionate toward his stepmother, whom he would call "Mother" for the rest of his life, but he was distant from his father.  Donald, (1995) pp. 28, 152.',
 "In 1830, after more economic and land-title difficulties in Indiana, the family settled on public land  /ref> in Macon County, Illinois. Some scholars believe that it was his father's repeated land-title difficulties and ensuing financial hardships that led young Lincoln to study law.  The following winter was desolate and especially brutal, and the family considered moving back to Indiana. The following year, when his father relocated the family to a new homestead in Coles County, Illinois, twenty-two-year-old Lincoln struck out on his own, canoeing down the Sangamon River to the village of New Salem in Sangamon County. Later that year, hired by New Salem businessman Denton Offutt and accompanied by friends, he took goods from New Salem to New Orleans via flatboat on the Sangamon, Illinois and Mississippi rivers. While in New Orleans, he may have witnessed a slave auction, though as a frequent visitor to Kentucky, he would have had several earlier opportunities to witness  similar sales.  Donald, (1995) ch. 2.",
 "Lincoln's formal education consisted of about 18 months of schooling. Largely self-educated, he read every book he could get his hands on, once walking.  just to borrow one  While his favorite book was The Life of George Washington, Lincoln mastered the Bible, Shakespeare, and English and American history, and developed a plain writing style that puzzled audiences more used to grandiose rhetoric. He was also a talented local wrestler and skilled with an ax; some rails he had allegedly split in his youth were exhibited at the 1860 Republican National Convention, as the party celebrated the poor-boy-made-good theme. Lincoln avoided hunting and fishing because he did not like killing animals, even for food. Though he was unusually tall at  , 4 inches and strong, Lincoln spent so much time reading that some neighbors suspected he must be doing it to avoid strenuous manual labor.",
 'Young Abraham Lincoln',
 'Lincoln began his political career in 1832, at age 23, with an unsuccessful campaign for the Illinois General Assembly, as a member of the Whig Party.  He ran eighth in a field of 13 candidates.  The centerpiece of his platform was the undertaking of navigational improvements on the Sangamon River. He believed that this would attract steamboat traffic, which would allow the sparsely populated, poorer areas along the river to flourish.',
 'He was elected captain of an Illinois militia company drawn from New Salem during the Black Hawk War, and later wrote that he had not had "any such success in life which gave him so much satisfaction."  Thomas (1952) 32-34; Basler (1946) p. 551   Though he never saw combat, Lincoln did assist in burying the dead from the Battle of Stillman\'s Run the day after Major Isaiah Stillman\'s troops fled the field of battle.  Abraham Lincoln Online Retrieved on March 11, 2007',
 'For several months, Lincoln ran a small store in New Salem, selling tea, coffee, sugar, salt, blue calico, brown muslin, straw hats and whiskey.  Beveridge (1928) 1:127-8  Later, he found work as village postmaster and as a surveyor.',
 'In 1834, he won election to the state legislature, and after coming across the Commentaries on the Laws of England, began to teach himself law. Admitted to the bar in 1837, he moved to Springfield, Illinois, that same year and began to practice law with John T. Stuart. With a reputation as a formidable adversary during cross-examinations and in his closing arguments, Lincoln became one of the most respected and successful lawyers in Illinois and grew steadily more prosperous.',
 'He served four successive terms in the Illinois House of Representatives as a representative from Sangamon County, and became a leader of the Illinois Whig party. In 1837, he made his first protest against slavery in the Illinois House, stating that the institution was "founded on both injustice and bad policy."  Protest in Illinois Legislature on Slavery, p.75, March 3, 1837  It was also in this same year that Lincoln met Joshua Fry Speed, who would become his most intimate friend.',
 'Lincoln wrote a series of anonymous letters, published in 1842 in the Sangamon Journal, mocking State Auditor and prominent Democrat James Shields. Shields would later become a U.S. senator, but when he learned that it was Lincoln who had been writing the barbs, he challenged him to a duel. As Shields was the challenger, Lincoln was granted the right to choose the weapon and specified "Cavalry broad swords of the largest size." Much taller and with long arms, this gave him an overwhelming advantage over his opponent; however, the duel was called off at the last minute. Beveridge (1928) 1:349. Lincoln had been practicing with the broad sword.  Two years later, Lincoln entered law practice with William Herndon, a fellow Whig. In 1854, both men joined the fledgling Republican Party. Following Lincoln\'s death, Herndon began collecting stories about Lincoln and published them in Herndon\'s Lincoln.',
 'The first photograph ever taken of Mary Lincoln, a daguerreotype by Shepherd in 1846.',
 'On November 4 1842 Lincoln married Mary Todd, daughter of a prominent slave-owning family from Kentucky. The couple had four sons. Robert Todd Lincoln was born in Springfield, Illinois on 1 August, 1843. Their only child to survive into adulthood, young Robert attended Phillips Exeter Academy and Harvard College. Robert died on July 26, 1926, in Manchester, Vermont.',
 'The other Lincoln children were born in Springfield, Illinois, and died either during childhood or their teen years. Edward Baker Lincoln was born on March 10, 1846, and died on 1 February, 1850, also in Springfield. William Wallace Lincoln was born on December 21, 1850, and died on February 20, 1862 in Washington, D.C., during Pres. Lincoln\'s first term. Thomas "Tad" Lincoln was born on 4 April, 1853, and died on July 16, 1871 in Chicago.',
 "Four of his wife's brothers fought for the Confederacy, with one wounded and another killed in action. Lieutenant David H. Todd, a half-brother of Mary Todd Lincoln, served as commandant of the Libby Prison camp during the war.",
 'The first photograph ever taken of Abraham Lincoln, a daguerreotype taken by Shepherd in 1846.',
 'A Whig and an admirer of party leader Henry Clay,  Lincoln was elected to a term in the U.S. House of Representatives in 1846. As a freshman House member, he was not a particularly powerful or influential figure. He spoke out against the Mexican-American War, which he attributed to President Polk\'s desire for "military glory â\x80\x94 that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood." He also challenged the President\'s claims regarding the Texas boundary and offered Spot Resolutions demanding to know on what "spot" on US soil that blood was first spilt.  Congressional Globe, 30th Session (1848) pp.93-95  In January of 1848, he was among the 82 Whigs who defeated 81 Democrats in a procedural vote on an amendment to send a routine resolution back to committee with instructions to add the words "a war unnecessarily and unconstitutionally begun by the President of the United States." The amendment passed, but the bill never reemerged from committee and was never finally voted upon.  House Journal, 30th Session (1848) pp.183-184',
 'Lincoln later damaged his political reputation with a speech in which he declared, "God of Heaven has forgotten to defend the weak and innocent, and permitted the strong band of murderers and demons from hell to kill men, women, and children, and lay waste and pillage the land of the just." Two weeks later, President Polk sent a peace treaty to Congress. While no one in Washington paid any attention to Lincoln, the Democrats orchestrated angry outbursts from across his district, where the war was popular and many had volunteered. In Morgan County, resolutions were adopted in fervent support of the war and in wrathful denunciation of the "treasonable assaults of guerrillas at home; party demagogues; slanderers of the President; defenders of the butchery at the Alamo; traducers of the heroism at San Jacinto."  Abe Lincoln resource page',
 "Warned by his law partner, William Herndon, that the damage was mounting and irreparable, Lincoln decided not to run for reelection. In fact, in 1848 he campaigned vigorously for Zachary Taylor, the successful general whose atrocities he had denounced in January. Regardless, his statements were not easily forgotten, and would haunt him during the Civil War. These statements were also held against him when he applied for a position in the new Taylor administration. Instead, Taylor's people offered Lincoln various positions in the remote Oregon Territory, primarily the governorship. Acceptance of this offer would have ended his career in the rapidly growing state of Illinois, so Lincoln declined the position. Returning to Springfield, Lincoln gave up politics for several years and turned his energies to his law practice. During this time, he made many trips on horseback between various counties' courthouses. Beveridge, (1928) 1: 428-33; Donald (1995) p. 140-43.",
 'In the 1920s historical markers were placed at the county lines along the route Lincoln traveled in the eight judicial district. This example is on the border of Piatt and DeWitt counties',
 "By the mid-1850s, Lincoln's caseload focused largely on the competing transportation interests of river barges and railroads. In one prominent 1851 case, he represented the Alton & Sangamon Railroad in a dispute with a shareholder, James A. Barret. Barret had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to the railroad on the grounds that it had changed its originally planned route. Lincoln argued that as a matter of law a corporation is not bound by its original charter when that charter can be amended in the public interest, that the newer route proposed by Alton & Sangamon was superior and less expensive, and that accordingly, the corporation had a right to sue Barret for his delinquent payment. He won this case, and the decision by the Illinois Supreme Court was eventually cited by several other courts throughout the United States. Donald, (1995) ch. 6.",
 'Possibly the most notable criminal trial of Lincoln\'s career as a lawyer came in 1858, when he defended William "Duff" Armstrong, who has been charged with murder. The case became famous for Lincoln\'s use of judicial notice--a rare tactic at that time--to show that an eyewitness had lied on the stand. After the witness testified to having seen the crime by moonlight, Lincoln produced a Farmers\' Almanac to show that the moon on that date was at such a low angle that it could not have provided enough illumination to see anything clearly. Based almost entirely on this evidence, Armstrong was acquitted. Donald (1995), 150-51',
 'Lincoln was involved in more than 5,100 cases in Illinois alone during his 23-year legal career. Though many of these cases involved little more than filing a writ, others were more substantial and quite involved. Lincoln and his partners appeared before the Illinois State Supreme Court more than 400 times. During one trial, Lincoln\'s voir dire included a question to prospective jurors as to whether they were acquainted with counsel for the other side. When a few of them turned out to know the other lawyer, the judge interrupted, saying, "Mr. Lincoln, you are wasting the time of the court. The fact that a prospective juror knows your opponent does not disqualify him."',
 'No, Your Honor, I understand that, Lincoln answered. "I\'m afraid that some of them might not know him, which would place me at a disadvantage."',
 "Lincoln returned to politics in response to the Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854), which expressly repealed the limits on slavery's extent as determined by the Missouri Compromise (1820). Illinois Democrat Stephen A. Douglas, the most powerful man in the Senate, proposed popular sovereignty as the solution to the slavery impasse, and incorporated it into the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Douglas argued that in a democracy the people should have the right to decide whether or not to allow slavery in their territory, rather than have such a decision imposed on them by Congress.  Donald, (1995) ch. 7.",
 'In a speech against the act, on October 16 1854, delivered in Peoria, Lincoln first stood out among the other free soil orators of the day:',
 'Drawing on remnants of the old Whig, Free Soil, Liberty and Democratic parties, he was instrumental in forming the new Republican Party. In a stirring campaign, the Republicans carried Illinois in 1854 and elected a senator. Lincoln was the obvious choice, but to keep the new party balanced he allowed the election to go to an ex-Democrat Lyman Trumbull.',
 'In 1857-58, Douglas broke with President Buchanan, leading to a fight for control of the Democratic Party. Some eastern Republicans even favored the reelection of Douglas in 1858, since he had led the opposition to the Lecompton Constitution, which would have admitted Kansas as a slave state. Accepting the Republican nomination for Senate in 1858, Lincoln delivered his famous speech: "\'A house divided against itself cannot stand.\'(Mark 3:25) I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved â\x80\x94 I do not expect the house to fall â\x80\x94 but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other."  A House Divided Against Itself Cannot Stand, June 1858  The speech created an evocative image of the danger of disunion caused by the slavery debate, and rallied Republicans across the north.',
 'The 1858 campaign featured the Lincoln-Douglas debates, a nationally famous contest on slavery. Lincoln warned that the "Slave Power" was threatening the values of republicanism, while Douglas emphasized the supremacy of democracy, as set forth in his Freeport Doctrine, which said that local settlers should be free to choose whether to allow slavery or not. Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature reelected Douglas to the Senate. Nevertheless, Lincoln\'s eloquence transformed him into a national political star.',
 'During the debates of 1858, the issue of race was often discussed. During a time period when few believed in racial egalitarianism, Stephen Douglas informed the crowds, "If you desire Negro citizenshipâ\x80¦ if you desire them to vote on an equality with yourselvesâ\x80¦ then support Mr. Lincoln and the Black Republican party, who are in favor of the citizenship of the negro."  First Debate with Stephen A. Douglas at Ottawa, Illinois, August 21, 1858  Lincoln countered that he was "not in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races."  Fourth Debate with Stephen A. Douglas at Charleston, Illinois, September 18, 1858  His opposition to slavery was opposition to the Slave Power, though this would change during the course of the Civil War. Donald, (1995) ch. 8.',
 'On May 9-10, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur. At this convention, Lincoln received his first endorsement to run for the presidency.',
 "The Rail Candidate, Lincoln's 1860 candidacy is held up by slavery issue (slave on left) and party organization (New York Tribune editor Horace Greeley on right)",
 'Photo of Lincoln taken February 27, 1860 in New York City by Mathew Brady, the day of his famous Cooper Union speech.',
 'Entering the presidential nomination process as a distinct underdog, Lincoln was eventually chosen as the Republican candidate for the 1860 election for several reasons. His expressed views on slavery were seen as more moderate than those of rivals William H. Seward and Salmon P. Chase. His "Western" origins also appealed to the newer states: other contenders, especially those with more governmental experience, had acquired enemies within the party and were weak in the critical western states, while Lincoln was perceived as a moderate who could win the West. Most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party as the Slave Power tightened its grasp on the national government. Yet despite his Southern connections (his in-laws owned slaves), Lincoln misunderstood the depth of the revolution underway in the South and the emergence of Southern nationalism. Throughout the 1850s he denied that there would ever be a civil war, and his supporters repeatedly rejected claims that his election would incite secession.  Gabor S. Boritt, "\'And the War Came\'? Abraham Lincoln and the Question of Individual Responsibility," Why the Civil War Came ed by Boritt (1996), pp 3-30.',
 'Throughout the election, Lincoln did not campaign or give speeches. This was handled by the state and county Republican organizations, who used the latest techniques to sustain party enthusiasm and thus obtain high turnout. There was little effort to convert non-Republicans, and there was virtually no campaigning in the South except for a few border cities such as St. Louis, Missouri, and Wheeling, Virginia; indeed, the party did not even run a slate in most of the South. In the North, there were thousands of Republican speakers, tons of campaign posters and leaflets, and thousands of newspaper editorials. These focused first on the party platform, and second on Lincoln\'s life story, making the most of his boyhood poverty, his pioneer background, his native genius, and his rise from obscurity. His nicknames, "Honest Abe" and "the Rail-Splitter," were exploited to the full. The goal was to emphasize the superior power of "free labor," whereby a common farm boy could work his way to the top by his own efforts.  Thomas (1952) p 216; Reinhard H. Luthin, The First Lincoln Campaign (1944); Nevins vol 4;',
 'On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected as the 16th President of the United States, beating Democrat Stephen A. Douglas, John C. Breckinridge of the Southern Democrats, and John Bell of the new Constitutional Union Party. He was the first Republican president, winning entirely on the strength of his support in the North: he was not even on the ballot in nine states in the South, and won only 2 of 996 counties in the other Southern states. Lincoln gained 1,865,908 votes (39.9% of the total), for 180 electoral votes; Douglas, 1,380,202 (29.5%) for 12 electoral votes; Breckenridge, 848,019 (18.1%) for 72 electoral votes; and Bell, 590,901 (12.5%) for 39 electoral votes. There were fusion tickets in some states, but even if his opponents had combined in every state, Lincoln had a majority vote in all but two of the states in which he won the electoral votes and would still have won the electoral college and the election.',
 "As Lincoln's election became more likely, secessionists made it clear that their states would leave the Union. South Carolina took the lead, followed by six other cotton-growing states in the deep South. The upper South (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) listened to and rejected the secessionist appeal. They decided to stay in the Union, though they warned Lincoln that they would not support an invasion through their territory. The seven Confederate states seceded before Lincoln took office, declaring themselves to be a new nation, the Confederate States of America. President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy.",
 "President-elect Lincoln evaded possible assassins in Baltimore, and on February 23, 1861, arrived in disguise in Washington, D.C. At his inauguration on March 4, 1861, the German American Turners formed Lincoln's bodyguard; and a sizable garrison of federal troops was also present, ready to protect the capital from Confederate invasion and local insurrection.",
 'Photograph showing the March 4, 1861, inauguration of Abraham Lincoln in front of United States Capitol.',
 'In his First Inaugural Address, Lincoln declared, "I hold that in contemplation of universal law and of the Constitution the Union of these States is perpetual. Perpetuity is implied, if not expressed, in the fundamental law of all national governments," arguing further that the purpose of the United States Constitution was "to form a more perfect union" than the Articles of Confederation which were explicitly perpetual, thus the Constitution too was perpetual. He asked rhetorically that even were the Constitution a simple contract, would it not require the agreement of all parties to rescind it?',
 'Also in his inaugural address, in a final attempt to reunite the states and prevent the looming war, Lincoln supported the pending Corwin Amendment to the Constitution, which had already passed Congress. This amendment, which explicitly protected slavery in those states in which it existed, was designed to appeal not to the Confederacy but to the critical border states. At the same time, Lincoln adamantly opposed the Crittenden Compromise, which would have permitted slavery in the territories. Despite support for the Crittenden compromise among some prominent Republicans (including William Seward), Lincoln denounced it saying that it "would amount to a perpetual covenant of war against every people, tribe, and state owning a foot of land between here and Tierra del Fuego."',
 "By the time Lincoln took office, the Confederacy was an established fact, and no leaders of the insurrection proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. No compromise was found because a compromise was deemed virtually impossible. Lincoln might have allowed the southern states to secede, and some Republicans recommended that. However, conservative Democratic nationalists, such as Jeremiah S. Black, Joseph Holt, and Edwin M. Stanton had taken control of Buchanan's cabinet around January 1, 1861, and refused to accept secession. Lincoln and nearly every Republican leader adopted this position by March 1861: the Union could not be dismantled. However, as a strict follower of the constitution, Lincoln refused to take any action against the South unless the Unionists themselves were attacked first. This finally happened in April 1861.",
 'Historian Allan Nevins argues that Lincoln made three miscalculations in believing that he could preserve the Union, hold government property, and still avoid war. He "temporarily underrated the gravity of the crisis," overestimated the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South and border states, and misunderstood the conditional support of Unionists in the border states.  Allan Nevins, The Improvised War, 1861-1862 (1959) p 29',
 'In April 1861, after Union troops at Fort Sumter were fired upon and forced to surrender, Lincoln called on the governors of every state to send detachments totaling 75,000 troops to recapture forts, protect the capital, and "preserve the Union," which in his view still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states. Virginia, which had repeatedly warned Lincoln that it would not allow an invasion of its territory or join an attack on another state, responded by seceding, along with North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas.',
 'The slave states of Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware did not secede, and Lincoln urgently negotiated with state leaders there, promising not to interfere with slavery. After the fighting started, he had rebel leaders arrested in all the border areas (especially in Maryland) and held in military prisons without trial. Over 18,000 were arrested, though none were executed. One, Clement Vallandigham, was exiled; but all of the remainder were released, usually after two or three months (see: Ex parte Merryman).',
 'Lincoln met with his cabinet for the first reading of the Emancipation Proclamation draft on July 22, 1862. L-R: Edwin M. Stanton, Salmon P. Chase, Abraham Lincoln, Gideon Welles, Caleb B. Smith, William H. Seward, Montgomery Blair and Edward Bates',
 'In July 1862, Congress moved to free the slaves by passing the Second Confiscation Act. The goal was to weaken the rebellion, which was led and controlled by slave owners. While it did not abolish the legal institution of slavery (the Thirteenth Amendment did that), the Act showed that Lincoln had the support of Congress in liberating slaves owned by rebels. This new law was implemented with Lincoln\'s "Emancipation Proclamation."',
 'Lincoln is well known for ending slavery in the United States. In 1861 â\x80\x93 1862, however, he made it clear that the North was fighting the war to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery. Freeing the slaves became, in late 1862, a war measure to weaken the rebellion by destroying the economic base of its leadership class. Abolitionists criticized Lincoln for his sluggishness over slavery per se, but on August 22, 1862, Lincoln explained:',
 'The Emancipation Proclamation, announced on September 22 and put into effect on January 1, 1863, freed slaves in territories not under Union control. As Union armies advanced south, more slaves were liberated until all of them in Confederate hands (over three million) were freed. Lincoln later said: "I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper." The proclamation made the abolition of slavery in the rebel states an official war goal. Lincoln then threw his energies into passage of the Thirteenth Amendment to permanently abolish slavery throughout the nation. Lincoln addressed the issue of his consistency in an 1864 letter to Albert G. Hodges.  Letter to Albert G. Hodges, April 4, 1864',
 "In September 1862, thirteen northern governors met in Altoona, Pennsylvania, at the Loyal War Governors' Conference to discuss the Proclamation and Union war effort. In the end, the state executives fully supported the president's Proclamation and also suggested the removal of General George B. McClellan as commander of the Union's Army of the Potomac.  Images of America: Altoona, by Sr. Anne Francis Pulling, 2001, 10.",
 'For some time, Lincoln continued earlier plans to set up colonies for the newly freed slaves. He commented favorably on colonization in the Emancipation Proclamation, but all attempts at such a massive undertaking failed. As Frederick Douglass observed, Lincoln was, "The first great man that I talked with in the United States freely who in no single instance reminded me of the difference between himself and myself, of the difference of color." Life and Times of Frederick Douglass, by Frederick Douglass, 1895',
 "After Union victories at Gettysburg, Vicksburg and Chattanooga in 1863, victory seemed at hand, and Lincoln promoted Ulysses S. Grant General-in-Chief ( March 12, 1864). When the spring campaigns turned into bloody stalemates, Lincoln supported Grant's strategy of wearing down Lee's Confederate army at the cost of heavy Union casualties. With an election looming, he easily defeated efforts to deny his renomination. At the Convention, the Republican Party selected Andrew Johnson, a War Democrat from the Southern state of Tennessee, as his running mate in order to form a broader coalition. They ran on the new Union Party ticket uniting Republicans and War Democrats.",
 'Lincoln, in top hat, with Allan Pinkerton and Gen. John Alexander McClernand at Antietam.',
 'Nevertheless, Republicans across the country feared that Lincoln would be defeated. Acknowledging this fear, Lincoln wrote and signed a pledge that, if he should lose the election, he would nonetheless defeat the Confederacy by an all-out military effort before turning over the White House: Mark Grimsley and Brooks D Simpson, eds. The Collapse of the Confederacy (2001) p 80',
 'Lincoln did not show the pledge to his cabinet, but asked them to sign the sealed envelope.',
 'While the Democratic platform followed the Peace wing of the party and called the war a "failure," their candidate, General George B. McClellan, supported the war and repudiated the platform.',
 "Lincoln provided Grant with new replacements and mobilized his party to support Grant and win local support for the war effort. Sherman's capture of Atlanta in September ended defeatist jitters; the Democratic Party was deeply split, with some leaders and most soldiers openly for Lincoln; the Union party was united and energized, and Lincoln was easily reelected in a landslide. He won all but two states, capturing 212 of 233 electoral votes.",
 'On March 4 1865, Lincoln delivered his second inaugural address, his favorite of all his speeches. At this time, a victory over the rebels was at hand, slavery was dead, and Lincoln was looking to the future.',
 'â\x80\x9cRunning the â\x80\x98Machineâ\x80\x99â\x80\x9d',
 'An 1864 cartoon featuring Lincoln, William Fessenden, Edwin Stanton, William Seward and Gideon Welles takes a swing at the Lincoln administration',
 "The war was a source of constant frustration for the president, and occupied nearly all of his time. He had a contentious relationship with General McClellan, who became general-in-chief of all the Union armies in the wake of the embarrassing Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run and after the retirement of Winfield Scott in late 1861. Despite his inexperience in military affairs, Lincoln wanted to take an active part in determining war strategy. His priorities were twofold: to ensure that Washington, D.C., was well defended; and to conduct an aggressive war effort in the hope of ending the war quickly and appeasing the Northern public and press. McClellan, a youthful West Point graduate and railroad executive called back to active military service, took a more cautious approach. He took several months to plan and execute his Peninsula Campaign, with the objective of capturing Richmond by moving the Army of the Potomac by boat to the peninsula between the James and York Rivers. McClellan's delay irritated Lincoln, as did his insistence that no troops were needed to defend Washington, D.C. Lincoln insisted on holding some of McClellan's troops to defend the capital, a decision McClellan blamed for the ultimate failure of the Peninsula Campaign.",
 "McClellan, a lifelong Democrat who was temperamentally conservative, was relieved as general-in-chief after releasing his Harrison's Landing Letter, where he offered unsolicited political advice to Lincoln urging caution in the war effort. McClellan's letter incensed Radical Republicans, who successfully pressured Lincoln to appoint John Pope, a Republican, as head of the new Army of Virginia. Pope complied with Lincoln's strategic desire to move toward Richmond from the north, thus protecting the capital from attack. But Pope was soundly defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run in the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac to defend Washington for a second time. In response to his failure, Pope was sent to Minnesota to fight the Sioux.",
 'An 1864 Mathew Brady photo depicts President Lincoln reading a book with his youngest son, Tad',
 "Panicked by Lee's invasion of Maryland, Lincoln restored McClellan to command of all forces around Washington in time for the Battle of Antietam (September 1862). The ensuing Union victory enabled Lincoln to release his Emancipation Proclamation, but he relieved McClellan of his command shortly after the 1862 midterm elections and appointed Republican Ambrose Burnside to head the Army of the Potomac. Burnside had promised to follow through on Lincoln's strategic vision for a strong offensive against Lee and Richmond. After Burnside was stunningly defeated at Fredericksburg, Joseph Hooker was given the command, despite his idle talk about the necessity for a military dictator to win the war and a past history of criticizing his commanders.  Joseph Hooker biography  Hooker was routed by Lee at the Battle of Chancellorsville (May 1863), and relieved of command early in the subsequent Gettysburg Campaign replaced by George Meade.",
 'After the Union victory at Gettysburg, Meade\'s failure to pursue Lee and months of inactivity for the Army of the Potomac persuaded Lincoln to bring in a western general, Ulysses S. Grant. Grant already had a solid string of victories in the Western Theater, including the battles of Vicksburg and Chattanooga. Responding to criticism of Grant, Lincoln was quoted as saying, "I cannot spare this man. He fights." Grant waged his bloody Overland Campaign in 1864 with a strategy of a war of attrition, characterized by high Union losses at battles such as the Wilderness and Cold Harbor, but by proportionately higher Confederate losses. His invasion campaign eventually bottled Lee up in the Siege of Petersburg, so that Grant could take Richmond, and bring the war to a close in the spring of 1865.',
 "Lincoln authorized Grant to target civilians and infrastructure, hoping to destroy the South's morale and weaken its economic ability to continue fighting. This allowed Generals Sherman and Sheridan to destroy farms and towns in the Shenandoah Valley, Georgia, and South Carolina. The damage caused by Sherman's March to the Sea through Georgia totaled in excess of $100 million by Sherman's own estimate. See Hofstadter, Richard, The United States: The History of a Republic, Prentice-Hall, 1967, p. 446.",
 "Lincoln had a star-crossed record as a military leader, possessing a keen understanding of strategic points (such as the Mississippi River and the fortress city of Vicksburg) and the importance of defeating the enemy's army, rather than simply capturing cities. He had, however, limited success in motivating his commanders to adopt his strategies until late 1863, when he found a man who shared his vision of the war in Ulysses S. Grant. Only then could he insist on using African American troops and relentlessly pursue a series of coordinated offensives in multiple theaters.",
 "Throughout the war, Lincoln showed a keen curiosity with the military campaigns. He spent hours at the War Department telegraph office, reading dispatches from his generals. He visited battle sites frequently, and seemed fascinated by watching scenes of war. During Jubal Anderson Early's raid on Washington, D.C. in 1864, Lincoln had to be told to duck to avoid being shot while observing the battle.",
 'Reconstruction began during the war as Lincoln and his associates pondered questions of how to reintegrate the Southern states and what to do with Confederate leaders and the freed slaves. Lincoln led the "moderates" regarding Reconstructionist policy, and was usually opposed by the Radical Republicans, under Thaddeus Stevens in the House and Charles Sumner and Benjamin Wade in the Senate (though he cooperated with these men on most other issues). Determined to find a course that would reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held throughout the war in areas behind Union lines. His Amnesty Proclamation of December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office, had not mistreated Union prisoners, and would sign an oath of allegiance.  /ref> Critical decisions had to be made as state after state was reconquered. Of special importance were Tennessee, where Lincoln appointed Andrew Johnson as governor, and Louisiana, where Lincoln attempted a plan that would restore statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed to it. The Radicals thought this policy too lenient, and passed their own plan, the Wade-Davis Bill, in 1864. When Lincoln pocket-vetoed the bill, the Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat representatives elected from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee.  Donald (1995) ch. 20',
 'On April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered at Appomattox Court House in Virginia, and the war was effectively over. The other rebel armies surrendered soon after, and there was no subsequent guerrilla warfare. Lincoln went to Richmond to make a public gesture of sitting at Jefferson Davis\'s own desk, symbolically saying to the nation that the President of the United States held authority over the entire land. He was greeted at the city as a conquering hero by freed slaves, whose sentiments were epitomized by one admirer\'s quote, "I know I am free for I have seen the face of Father Abraham and have felt him." When a general asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates should be treated, Lincoln replied, "Let \'em up easy."  Donald (1995) 576, 580,   "President Lincoln Enters Richmond, 1865" EyeWitness to History, www.eywitnesstohistory.com (2000).',
 'One of the last photographs of Lincoln, likely taken between February and April 1865',
 'Lincoln\'s powerful rhetoric defined the issues of the war for the nation, the world, and posterity. His extraordinary command of the English language was evidenced in the Gettysburg Address, a speech dedicating the cemetery at Gettysburg that he delivered on November 19, 1863. The speech defied Lincoln\'s own prediction that "the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here." Lincoln\'s second inaugural address is also greatly admired and often quoted. In these speeches, Lincoln articulated better than anyone else the rationale behind the Union cause.',
 'In recent years, historians have stressed Lincoln\'s use of and redefinition of republican values. As early as the 1850s, a time when most political rhetoric focused on the sanctity of the Constitution, Lincoln shifted emphasis to the Declaration of Independence as the foundation of American political valuesâ\x80\x94what he called the "sheet anchor" of republicanism.  Jaffa (2000) p. 399  The Declaration\'s emphasis on freedom and equality for all, rather than the Constitution\'s tolerance of slavers, shifted the debate. As Diggins concludes regarding the highly influential Cooper Union speech, "Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself."  John Patrick Diggins, The Lost Soul of American Politics: Virtue, Self-interest, and the Foundations of Liberalism (1986) p. 307.  His position gained strength because he highlighted the moral basis of republicanism, rather than its legalisms.  Foner (1970) p. 215 says, "Lincoln stressed the moral basis of republicanism."  See also McPherson (1992) pp.61-64.  Nevertheless, in 1861 Lincoln justified the war in terms of legalisms (the Constitution was a contract, and for one party to get out of a contract all the other parties had to agree), and then in terms of the national duty to guarantee a "republican form of government" in every state. Jaffa (2000) p. 263  That duty was also the principle underlying federal intervention in Reconstruction.',
 "Lincoln's second inauguration on March 4, 1865. In the photo, Lincoln's assassin, John Wilkes Booth, can be seen in the crowd at the top and accomplices David Herold, Lewis Powell, George Atzerodt, John Surratt and Edmund Spangler in the bottom crowd",
 'In his Gettysburg Address Lincoln redefined the American nation, arguing that it was born not in 1789 but in 1776, "conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal." He declared that the sacrifices of battle had rededicated the nation to the propositions of democracy and equality, "that this nation shall have a new birth of freedom â\x80\x94 and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth." By emphasizing the centrality of the nation, he rebuffed the claims of state sovereignty. While some critics say Lincoln moved too far and too fast,  H.L. Mencken said "It is difficult to imagine anything more untrue. The Union soldiers in the battle actually fought against self-determination; it was the Confederates who fought for the right of their people to govern themselves." Mencken did not mention the right of self-determination rights for blacks.   they agree that he dedicated the nation to values that marked "a new founding of the nation."  Wills (1992) p. 39.',
 'During the Civil War, Lincoln appropriated powers no previous President had wielded: he used his war powers to proclaim a blockade, suspended the writ of habeas corpus, spent money without congressional authorization, and imprisoned 18,000 suspected Confederate sympathizers without trial. Nearly all of his actions, although vehemently denounced by the Copperheads, were subsequently upheld by Congress and the Courts.',
 "Lincoln believed in the Whig theory of the presidency, which left Congress to write the laws while he signed them, vetoing only those bills that threatened his war powers. Thus, he signed the Homestead Act in 1862, making millions of acres of government-held land in the West available for purchase at very low cost. The Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act, also signed in 1862, provided government grants for agricultural universities in each state. The Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States' First Transcontinental Railroad, which was completed in 1869. Other important legislation involved economic matters, including the first income tax and higher tariffs. Also included was the creation of the system of national banks by the National Banking Acts of 1863, 1864, and 1865, which allowed the creation of a strong national financial system.  Congress created and Lincoln approved the Department of Agriculture in 1862, although that institution would not become a Cabinet-level department until 1889.",
 'The Legal Tender Act of 1862 established the United States Note, the first paper currency in United States history.  This was done to increase the money supply to pay for fighting the war.',
 "During the war, Lincoln's Treasury Department effectively controlled all cotton trade in the occupied Southâ\x80\x94the most dramatic incursion of federal controls on the economy.",
 'In 1862, Lincoln sent a senior general, John Pope, to put down the "Sioux Uprising" in Minnesota. Presented with 303 death warrants for convicted Santee Dakota who had massacred innocent farmers, Lincoln affirmed 39 of these for execution (one was later reprieved).',
 'The assassination of Abraham Lincoln. From left to right: Henry Rathbone, Clara Harris, Mary Todd Lincoln, Abraham Lincoln and John Wilkes Booth',
 "Originally, John Wilkes Booth, a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland, had formulated a plan to kidnap Lincoln in exchange for the release of Confederate prisoners. After attending an April 11 speech in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for blacks, an incensed Booth changed his plans and determined to assassinate the president. Harrison, Lowell Hayes, Lincoln of Kentucky, University Press of Kentucky, 2000, pp. 3â\x80\x934. ISBN 0813121566.  Learning that the President and First Lady, together with the Grants, would be attending Ford's Theatre, he laid his plans, assigning his co-conspirators to assassinate Vice President Andrew Johnson and Secretary of State William H. Seward.",
 'Without his main bodyguard Ward Hill Lamon, to whom he related his famous dream regarding his own assassination, Lincoln left to attend the play Our American Cousin on April 14, 1865. As a lone bodyguard wandered, and Lincoln sat in his state box (Box 7) in the balcony, Booth crept up behind the President and waited for the funniest line of the play, hoping the laughter would muffle the noise of the gunshot. When the laughter began, Booth jumped into the box and aimed a single-shot, round-slug .44 caliber Henry Deringer at his head, firing at point-blank range. Major Henry Rathbone momentarily grappled with Booth but was cut by Booth\'s knife. Booth then leapt to the stage and shouted "Sic semper tyrannis!" (Latin: "Thus always to tyrants") and escaped, despite a broken leg suffered in the leap. George Alfred Townsend, The Life, Crime and Capture of John Wilkes Booth. New York: Dick & Fitzgerald, 1865. (LCCN  12002580.  A twelve-day manhunt ensued, in which Booth was chased by Federal agents (under the direction of Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton). He was eventually cornered in a Virginia barn house  and shot, dying of his wounds soon after.',
 'An army surgeon, Doctor Charles Leale, initially assessed Lincoln\'s wound as mortal. The President was taken across the street from the theater to the Petersen House, where he lay in a coma for nine hours before he died. Several physicians attended Lincoln, including U.S. Army Surgeon General Joseph K. Barnes of the Army Medical Museum. Using a probe, Barnes located some fragments of Lincoln\'s skull and the ball lodged 6 inches (15 cm) inside his brain. Lincoln never regained consciousness and was officially pronounced dead at 7:22:10 a.m. April 15, 1865 at the age of 56. There is some disagreement among historians as to Stanton\'s words after Lincoln died. All agree that he began "Now he belongs to the..." with some stating he said "ages" while others believe he said "angels."  After Lincoln\'s body was returned to the White House, his body was prepared for his lying in repose in the East Room. He was the first president to lie in state.',
 "The Army Medical Museum, now named the National Museum of Health and Medicine, has retained in its collection several artifacts relating to the assassination. Currently on display are the bullet that was fired from the Derringer pistol, the probe used by Barnes, pieces of Lincoln's skull and hair, and the surgeon's cuff stained with Lincoln's blood.",
 "Lincoln's funeral train carried his remains, as well as 300 mourners and the casket of his son William, 1,654 miles (2,661 km) to Illinois ",
 "Lincoln's body was carried by train in a grand funeral procession through several states on its way back to Illinois.  While much of the nation mourned him as the savior of the United States, Copperheads celebrated the death of a man they considered an unconstitutional tyrant. The Lincoln Tomb in Oak Ridge Cemetery in Springfield, is 177 feet (54 m) tall and, by 1874, was surmounted with several bronze statues of Lincoln. To prevent repeated attempts to steal Lincoln's body and hold it for ransom, Robert Todd Lincoln had Lincoln exhumed and reinterred in concrete several feet thick in 1901.",
 'With over 120 photographs taken of him, Lincoln was the most photographed man in the United States up to the time he was assassinated.',
 'Lincoln was known for appointing political rivals to high positions in his cabinet to keep in line all factions of his party â\x80\x94 and to let them battle each other and not combine against Lincoln. Historians agree that except for Simon Cameron, it was a highly effective group.',
 "Abraham Lincoln's official White House portrait",
 'Lincoln appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:',
 'In March 1860 in a speech in New Haven, Connecticut, Lincoln said, with respect to slavery, â\x80\x9cWhenever this question shall be settled, it must be settled on some philosophical basis. No policy that does not rest upon some philosophical public opinion can be permanently maintained." The philosophical basis for Lincolnâ\x80\x99s beliefs regarding slavery and other issues of the day require that Lincoln be examined "seriously as a man of ideas." Lincoln was a strong supporter of the American Whig version of liberal capitalism who, more than most politicians of the time, was able to express his ideas within the context of Nineteenth Century religious beliefs. Guelzo pg. 18-19',
 'There were few people who strongly or directly influenced Lincolnâ\x80\x99s moral and intellectual development and perspectives. There was no teacher, mentor, church leader, community leader, or peer that Lincoln would credit in later years as a strong influence on his intellectual development. Lacking a formal education, Lincolnâ\x80\x99s personal philosophy was shaped by "an amazingly retentive memory and a passion for reading and learning." It was Lincolnâ\x80\x99s reading, rather than his relationships, that were most influential in shaping his personal beliefs. Guelzo pg. 20. Miller pg. 57-59  Lincolnâ\x80\x99s reading and study of the Bible was an integral part of his intellectual roots.',
 'Lincoln did, even as a boy, largely reject organized religion, but the Calvinistic "doctrine of necessity" would remain a factor throughout his life. In 1846 Lincoln described the effect of this doctrine as "that the human mind is impelled to action, or held in rest by some power, over which the mind itself has no control." Donald pg. 15. The quote came from a letter to the public in which Lincoln was denying charges by a political opponent that he was a â\x80\x9creligious scoffer.â\x80\x9d  In April 1864, in justifying his actions in regard to Emancipation, Lincoln wrote, "I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me. Now, at the end of three years struggle the nation\'s condition is not what either party, or any man devised, or expected. God alone can claim it." Donald pg. 514',
 'As Lincoln matured, and especially during his term as president, the idea of a divine will somehow interacting with human affairs more and more influenced his public expressions. On a personal level, the death of his son Willie in February 1862 may have caused Lincoln to look towards religion for answers and solace. Wilson pg. 251-254  After Willieâ\x80\x99s death, in the summer or early fall of 1862, Lincoln attempted to put on paper his private musings on why, from a divine standpoint, the severity of the war was necessary:',
 'Lincolnâ\x80\x99s religious skepticism was fueled by his exposure to the ideas of the Lockean Enlightenment and classical liberalism, especially economic liberalism. Guelzo pg. 20  Consistent with the common practice of the Whig party, Lincoln would often use the Declaration of Independence as the philosophical and moral expression of these two philosophies. Guelzo pg.194  In a February 22, 1861 speech at Independence Hall in Philadelphia Lincoln said,',
 'He found in the Declaration justification for Whig economic policy and opposition to territorial expansion and the nativist platform of the Know Nothings. In claiming that all men were created free, Lincoln and the Whigs argued that this freedom required economic advancement, expanded education, territory to grow, and the ability of the nation to absorb the growing immigrant population. Guelzo pg.194-195',
 'It was the Declaration of Independence, rather than the Bible, that Lincoln most relied on in order to oppose any further territorial expansion of slavery. He saw the Declaration as more than a political document. To him, as well as to many abolitionists and other antislavery leaders, it was, foremost, a moral document that had forever determined valuable criteria in shaping the future of the nation. Miller pg. 297',
 'While Lincoln is usually portrayed bearded, he first grew a beard in 1860 at the suggestion of 11-year-old Grace Bedell',
 "Lincoln's death made the President a martyr to many. Repeated polls of historians have ranked Lincoln as among the greatest presidents in U.S. history, often appearing in the first position. Among contemporary admirers, Lincoln is usually seen as personifying classical values of honesty and integrity, as well as respect for individual and minority rights, and human freedom in general.",
 'Many American organizations of all purposes and agendas continue to cite his name and image, with interests ranging from the gay rights-supporting Log Cabin Republicans to the insurance corporation Lincoln National Corporation. The Lincoln automobile is also named after him. The ballistic missile submarine Abraham Lincoln (SSBN-602) and the aircraft carrier Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72) were named in his honor. Also, the Liberty ship, SS Nancy Hanks was named to honor his mother. During the Spanish Civil War the American faction of the International Brigades named themselves the Abraham Lincoln Brigade after Lincoln.',
 "Lincoln has been memorialized in many city names, notably the capital of Nebraska. Lincoln, Illinois, is the only city to be named for Abraham Lincoln before he became President. Lincoln's name and image appear in numerous places. These include the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., the U.S. Lincoln $5 bill and the Lincoln cent, Lincoln's sculpture on the Mount Rushmore, and the Lincoln Home National Historic Site in Springfield, Illinois. In addition, New Salem, Illinois (a reconstruction of Lincoln's early adult hometown), Ford's Theatre, and Petersen House (where he died) are all preserved as museums. The Lincoln Shrine in Redlands, California, is located behind the A.K. Smiley Public Library. The state nickname for Illinois is Land of Lincoln.",
 'Counties in 19 U.S. states (Arkansas, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Maine, Minnesota, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Tennessee, West Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming) are named after Lincoln.',
 "Abraham Lincoln's birthday, February 12, was formerly a national holiday, now commemorated as Presidents' Day. However, it is still observed in Illinois and many other states as a separate legal holiday, Lincoln's Birthday. A dozen states have legal holidays celebrating the third Monday in February as 'Presidents' Day' as a combination Washington-Lincoln Day.",
 'To commemorate his upcoming 200th birthday in February 2009, Congress established the Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial Commission (ALBC) in 2000. Dedicated to renewing American appreciation of Lincolnâ\x80\x99s legacy, the 15-member commission is made up of lawmakers and scholars and also features an adivsory board of over 130 various Lincoln historians and enthusiasts. Located at Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., the ALBC is the organizing force behind numerous tributes, programs and cultural events highlighting a two-year celebration scheduled to begin in February 2008 at Lincolnâ\x80\x99s birthplace:  Hodgenville, Kentucky.',
 "Lincoln's birthplace and family home are national historic memorials: the Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site in Hodgenville, and the Lincoln Home National Historic Site in Springfield, Illinois. The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum opened in Springfield in 2005; it is a major tourist attraction, with state-of-the-art exhibits. The Abraham Lincoln National Cemetery is located in Elwood, Illinois.",
 "* American School, Lincoln's economic views.",
 '* Donald, David Herbert. We Are Lincoln Men: Abraham Lincoln and His Friends Simon & Schuster, (2003).',
 "* Morgenthau, Hans J., and David Hein. Essays on Lincoln's Faith and Politics. White Burkett Miller Center of Public Affairs at the U of Virginia, 1983.",
 '* Ostendorf, Lloyd, and Hamilton, Charles, Lincoln in Photographs: An Album of Every Known Pose, Morningside House Inc., 1963, ISBN 089029-087-3.',
 '* Williams, T. Harry. Lincoln and His Generals (1967).',
 "* Wilson, Douglas L. Honor's Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln by (1999).",
 "* Wilson, Douglas L. Lincoln's Sword: The Presidency and the Power of Words(2006) ISBN 1-4000-4039-6.",
 '* Gore Vidal. Lincoln ISBN 0-375-70876-6, a novel.',
 '*  (2007) is a fictional film which concerns the assassination of Lincoln.',
 'John Calvin Coolidge, Jr. (July 4 1872   January 5 1933), more commonly known as Calvin Coolidge, was the thirtieth President of the United States (1923â\x80\x931929).  A lawyer from Vermont, Coolidge worked his way up the ladder of Massachusetts state politics, eventually becoming governor of that state. His actions during the Boston Police Strike of 1919 thrust him into the national spotlight. Soon after, he was elected as the twenty-ninth Vice President in 1920 and succeeded to the Presidency upon the death of Warren G. Harding. Elected in his own right in 1924, he gained a reputation as a small-government conservative.',
 'In many ways Coolidge\'s style of governance was a throwback to the passive presidency of the nineteenth century. Sobel, 14  He restored public confidence in the White House after the scandals of his predecessor\'s administration, and left office with considerable popularity. McCoy, 420â\x80\x93421; Greenberg, 49â\x80\x9353  As his biographer later put it, "he embodied the spirit and hopes of the middle class, could interpret their longings and express their opinions. That he did represent the genius of the average is the most convincing proof of his strength." Fuess, 500',
 'Many later criticized Coolidge as part of a general criticism of laissez-faire government. McCoy, 418; Greenberg, 146â\x80\x93150; Ferrell, 66â\x80\x9372  His reputation underwent a renaissance during the Reagan administration, Sobel, 12â\x80\x9313; Greenberg, 2â\x80\x933  but the ultimate assessment of his presidency is still divided between those who approve of his reduction of the size of government and those who believe the federal government should be more involved in regulating the economy. Greenberg, 1â\x80\x937',
 "John Calvin Coolidge Jr. was born in Plymouth, Windsor County, Vermont, on July 4 1872, the only U.S. President to be born on the fourth of July. He was the elder of two children of John Calvin Sr. and Victoria Coolidge. The Coolidge family had deep roots in New England. His earliest American ancestor, John Coolidge, emigrated from Cambridge, England, around 1630 and settled in Watertown, Massachusetts. Fuess, 12  Coolidge's great-great-grandfather, also named John Coolidge, was an American army officer in the American Revolution, and was one of the first selectmen of the town of Plymouth Notch. Fuess, 7  Most of Coolidge's ancestors were farmers. The more well-known Coolidges, such as architect Charles Allerton Coolidge, and diplomat Archibald Cary Coolidge, were descended from other branches of the family that had stayed in Massachusetts.  Coolidge's grandmother Sarah Almeda Brewer had two famous first cousins: Arthur Brown, a United States Senator, and Olympia Brown, a women's suffragist.",
 'Coolidge as an Amherst undergraduate',
 'Coolidge\'s grandfather, Calvin Coolidge, held some local government offices in Plymouth and was best remembered as a man with "a fondness for practical jokes". Fuess, 14  His grandmother, Sarah Brewer, was also of New England. It is through this ancestor that Coolidge claimed to be descended in part from American Indians. McCoy, 5  Coolidge\'s father was also a farmer, but spent some time as a schoolteacher and justice of the peace. Fuess, 16  His mother, Victoria Josephine Moor Coolidge, was the daughter of another Plymouth Notch farmer. Fuess, 17  Coolidge\'s mother was chronically ill, possibly suffering from tuberculosis, and died young in 1884, but Coolidge\'s father lived to see him become President. McCoy, 5; White, 11',
 'Coolidge graduated from Black River Academy, Vermont, but failed his initial entrance exam to Amherst College.  Vermont Historical Society biography of Calvin Coolidge accessed December 6 2007  He spent one term at St. Johnsbury Academy, Vermont before entering Amherst.  Accomplished alumni. Amherst College, where he was a member of the Fraternity of Phi Gamma Delta. Retrieved on May 18, 2007  He dropped John from his name upon graduating from college. At Amherst, Coolidge became a member of the Fraternity of Phi Gamma Delta and joined the College Republicans in 1892. White, 35  While there, Coolidge met Dwight Morrow, who would become a life-long friend. Sobel, 36  Coolidge would later credit Charles E. Garman, a professor of philosophy and ethics, with having a significant influence on his education. Autobiography, 63â\x80\x9370  He graduated cum laude in 1895. Sobel, 41  At graduation, Coolidge was selected by his classmates to compose and read the Grove Oration, a humorous speech traditionally given during the graduation ceremony.',
 "After graduating from Amherst, at his father's urging, Coolidge moved to Northampton, Massachusetts to take up the practice of law. Avoiding the costly alternative of attending a law school, Coolidge followed the more common practice at the time of apprenticing with a local firm, Hammond & Field. John C. Hammond and Henry P. Field, both Amherst graduates themselves, introduced Coolidge to the law practice in the county seat of Hampshire County. In 1897, Coolidge was admitted to the bar. With his savings and a small inheritance from his grandfather, Coolidge was able to open his own law office in Northampton in 1898, where he practiced transactional law, believing that he served his clients best by staying out of court. As his reputation as a hard-working and diligent attorney grew, local banks and other businesses began to retain his services. Fuess, 74â\x80\x9381; McCoy 22â\x80\x9326",
 'In 1905 Coolidge met and married Grace Anna Goodhue, a local schoolteacher and fellow Vermonter. They were opposites in personality: she was talkative and fun-loving, while Coolidge was quiet and serious. Greenberg, 58â\x80\x9359  Not long after their marriage, Coolidge handed her a bag with fifty-two pairs of socks in it, all of them full of holes. Grace\'s reply was "Did you marry me to darn your socks?" Without cracking a smile and with his usual seriousness, Calvin answered, "No, but I find it mighty handy." Telleen, Maurice.  The Days Before Yesterday: 75 years ago. The Draft Horse Journal, Autumn, 2001. Retrieved from Internet Archive on May 18, 2007.  They had two sons; John Coolidge, born in 1906, and Calvin Jr., born in 1908. White, 65â\x80\x9366  The marriage was, by most accounts, a happy one. Fuess, 89â\x80\x9392; Sobel, 57â\x80\x9358. Some biographers disagree with this rosy portrait, see Ferrell, 21â\x80\x9323  As Coolidge wrote in his Autobiography, "We thought we were made for each other. For almost a quarter of a century she has borne with my infirmities, and I have rejoiced in her graces." Autobiography, 93',
 'The Republican Party was dominant in New England in Coolidge\'s time, and he followed Hammond\'s and Field\'s example by becoming active in local politics. Sobel, 49â\x80\x9351  Coolidge campaigned locally for Republican presidential candidate William McKinley in 1896, and the next year he was selected to be a member of the Republican City Committee. Sobel, 51  In 1898, he won election to the City Council of Northampton, placing second in a ward where the top three candidates were elected.  The position offered no salary, but gave Coolidge experience in the political world. Fuess, 83  In 1899, he declined renomination, running instead for City Solicitor, a position elected by the City Council. He was elected for a one-year term in 1900, and reelected in 1901. Fuess, 84â\x80\x9385  This position gave Coolidge more experience as a lawyer, and paid a salary of $600.  In 1902, the city council selected a Democrat for city solicitor, and Coolidge returned to an exclusively private practice. McCoy, 29  Soon thereafter, however, the clerk of courts for the county died, and Coolidge was chosen to replace him. The position paid well, but barred him from practicing law, so he only remained at the job for one year.  The next year, 1904, Coolidge met with his only defeat before the voters, losing an election to the Northampton school board. When told that some of his neighbors voted against him because he had no children in the schools he would govern, Coolidge replied "Might give me time!"',
 'Calvin and Grace Coolidge, about 1918.',
 "In 1906 the local Republican committee nominated Coolidge for election to the state House of Representatives. He won a close victory over the incumbent Democrat, and reported to Boston for the 1907 session of the Massachusetts General Court. Sobel, 61  In his freshman term, Coolidge served on minor committees and, although he usually voted with the party, was known as a Progressive Republican, voting in favor of such measures as women's suffrage and the direct election of Senators. Sobel, 62; Fuess, 99  Throughout his time in Boston, Coolidge found himself allied primarily with the western Winthrop Murray Crane faction of the state Republican Party, as against the Henry Cabot Lodge-dominated eastern faction. Sobel, 63â\x80\x9366  In 1907, he was elected to a second term. In the 1908 session, Coolidge was more outspoken, but was still not one of the leaders in the legislature. Sobel, 68â\x80\x9369",
 "Instead of vying for another term in the state house, Coolidge returned home to his growing family and ran for mayor of Northampton when the incumbent Democrat retired. He was well-liked in the town, and defeated his challenger by a vote of 1,597 to 1,409. Sobel, 72  During his first term (1910 to 1911), he increased teachers' salaries and retired some of the city's debt while still managing to effect a slight tax decrease. Fuess, 106â\x80\x93107; Sobel, 74  He was renominated in 1911, and defeated the same opponent by a slightly larger margin. Fuess, 108",
 'Calvin Coolidge as a young legislator',
 'In 1911 the State Senator for the Hampshire County area retired and encouraged Coolidge to run for his seat for the 1912 session. He defeated his Democratic opponent by a large margin. Sobel, 76  At the start of that term, Coolidge was selected to be chairman of a committee to arbitrate the "Bread and Roses" strike by the workers of the American Woolen Company in Lawrence, Massachusetts. See also the main article, Lawrence textile strike, for a full description.  After two tense months, the company agreed to the workers\' demands in a settlement the committee proposed. Fuess, 110â\x80\x93111; McCoy, 45â\x80\x9346  The other major issue for Republicans that year was the party split between the progressive wing, which favored Theodore Roosevelt, and the conservative wing, which favored William Howard Taft. Although he favored some progressive measures, Coolidge refused to bolt the party. Sobel, 79â\x80\x9380; Fuess, 111  When the new Progressive Party declined to run a candidate in his state senate district, Coolidge won reelection against his Democratic opponent by an increased margin.',
 "The 1913 session was less eventful, and Coolidge's time was mostly spent on the railroad committee, of which he was the chairman. Fuess, 111â\x80\x93113  Coolidge intended to retire after the 1913 session, as two terms were the norm, but when the President of the State Senate, Levi H. Greenwood, considered running for Lieutenant Governor, Coolidge decided to run again for the Senate in the hopes of being elected as its presiding officer. Fuess, 114â\x80\x93115  Although Greenwood later decided to run for reelection to the Senate, he was defeated and Coolidge was elected, with Crane's help, as the President of a closely divided Senate. Sobel, 80â\x80\x9382  After his election in January 1914, Coolidge delivered a speech entitled Have Faith in Massachusetts, which was later republished as a book. Have Faith in Massachusetts: A Collection of Speeches And Messages by Calvin Coolidge, 1919, ISBN 1417926082.  His speech, later much-quoted, summarized Coolidge's philosophy of government.",
 "Coolidge's speech was well-received and he attracted some admirers on its account. Sobel, 90â\x80\x9392  Towards the end of the term, many of them were proposing his name for nomination to lieutenant governor. After winning reelection to the Senate by an increased margin in the 1914 elections, Coolidge was reelected unanimously to be President of the Senate. Sobel, 90; Fuess, 124  As the 1915 session drew to a close, Coolidge's supporters, led by fellow Amherst alumnus Frank Stearns, encouraged him once again to run for lieutenant governor. This time, he accepted their advice. Sobel, 92â\x80\x9398; Fuess, 133â\x80\x93136",
 "Coolidge entered the primary election for lieutenant governor and was nominated to run alongside gubernatorial candidate Samuel W. McCall. Coolidge was the leading vote-getter in the Republican primary, and balanced the Republican ticket by adding a western presence to McCall's eastern base of support. Fuess, 139â\x80\x93142  McCall and Coolidge won the 1915 election, with Coolidge defeating his opponent by more than 50,000 votes. Fuess, 145",
 "Coolidge's duties as lieutenant governor were few; in Massachusetts, the lieutenant governor does not preside over the state Senate, although Coolidge did become an ex officio member of the governor's cabinet. Fuess, 150; Sobel, 104  As a full-time elected official, Coolidge no longer practiced law after 1916, though his family continued to live in Northampton. Fuess, 151â\x80\x93152  McCall and Coolidge were both reelected in 1916 and again in 1917 (both offices were one-year terms in those days). When McCall decided that he would not stand for a fourth term, Coolidge announced his own intention to run for governor. Sobel, 107â\x80\x93110",
 "Coolidge was unopposed for the Republican nomination for Governor of Massachusetts in 1918. He and his running mate, Channing Cox, a Boston lawyer and Speaker of the Massachusetts House of Representatives, ran on the previous administration's record: fiscal conservatism, a vague opposition to Prohibition, support for women's suffrage, and support for American involvement in the First World War. Sobel, 111; McCall, 75â\x80\x9376  The issue of the war proved divisive, especially among Irish- and German-Americans. Sobel, 112  Coolidge was elected by a margin of 16,773 votes over his opponent, Richard H. Long, in the smallest margin of victory of any of his state-wide campaigns. Sobel, 115; McCall, 76",
 "In 1919 in response to rumors that policemen of the Boston Police Department planned to form a trade union, Police Commissioner Edwin U. Curtis issued a statement saying that such a move would not be countenanced. In August of that year, the American Federation of Labor issued a charter to the Boston Police Union. Russell, 77â\x80\x9379; Sobel, 129  Curtis said the union's leaders were insubordinate and planned to relieve them of duty, but said that he would suspend the sentence if the union was dissolved by September 4. Russell, 86â\x80\x9387  The mayor of Boston, Andrew Peters, convinced Curtis to delay his action for a few days, but Curtis ultimately suspended the union leaders after a brief delay, on September 8. Russell, 111â\x80\x93113; Sobel, 133â\x80\x93136",
 'The following day about three-quarters of the policemen in Boston went on strike. The exact total was 1,117 out of 1,544. Russell, 113  Coolidge had observed the situation throughout the conflict, but had not yet intervened. That night and the next, there was sporadic violence and rioting in the lawless city. Russell, 131â\x80\x93170  Peters, concerned about sympathy strikes, had called up some units of the Massachusetts National Guard stationed in the Boston area and relieved Curtis of duty. Russell, 120  Coolidge, furious that the mayor had called out state guard units, finally acted. Sobel, 141  He called up more units of the National Guard, restored Curtis to office, and took personal control of the police force. Sobel, 142  Curtis proclaimed that none of the strikers would be allowed back to their former jobs, and Coolidge issued calls for a new police force to be recruited. Russell, 182â\x80\x93183',
 'Samuel Gompers.',
 'That night Coolidge received a telegram from AFL leader Samuel Gompers. "Whatever disorder has occurred", Gompers wrote, "is due to Curtis\'s order in which the right of the policemen has been denied â\x80¦" Sobel, 143  Coolidge publicly answered Gompers\'s telegram with the response that would launch him into the national consciousness (quoted, above left).  Newspapers across the nation picked up on Coolidge\'s statement and he became the newest hero to defenders of American capitalism. In the midst of the First Red Scare, many Americans were terrified of the spread of communist revolution, like those that had taken place in Russia, Hungary, and Germany. While Coolidge had lost some friends among organized labor, conservatives across the nation had seen a rising star.',
 "Coolidge and Cox were renominated for their respective offices in 1919. By this time Coolidge's supporters (especially Stearns) had publicized his actions in the Police Strike around the state and the nation and some of Coolidge's speeches were reissued as a book.  He was faced with the same opponent as in 1918, Richard Long, but this time Coolidge defeated him by 125,101 votes, more than ten times his margin of victory from a year earlier. The tally was Coolidge 317,774, Long 192,673. Fuess, 238.  His actions in the police strike, combined with the massive electoral victory, led to suggestions that Coolidge should run for President in 1920. Fuess, 239â\x80\x93243; McCoy, 102â\x80\x93113",
 'By the time Coolidge was inaugurated on January 1 1919 the First World War had ended, and Coolidge pushed the legislature to give a $100 bonus to Massachusetts veterans. He also signed a bill reducing the work week for women and children from fifty-four hours to forty-eight, saying "we must humanize the industry, or the system will break down." Sobel, 117; Fuess, 195  He signed into law a budget that kept the tax rates the same, while trimming four million dollars from expenditures, thus allowing the state to retire some of its debt. Fuess, 186',
 'Coolidge also wielded the veto pen as governor. His most publicized veto was of a bill that would have increased legislators\' pay by 50%. Fuess, 187; McCall, 81  In May 1920, he vetoed a bill that would have allowed the sale of beer or wine of 2.75% alcohol or less, in contravention of the Eighteenth Amendment. Although Coolidge himself was opposed to Prohibition, he felt constrained to veto the bill. "Opinions and instructions do not outmatch the Constitution," he said in his veto message, "Against it, they are void." Fuess, 187â\x80\x93188',
 'At the 1920 Republican Convention most of the delegates were selected by state party conventions, not primaries. As such, the field was divided among many local favorites. Sobel, 152â\x80\x93153  Coolidge was one such candidate, and while he placed as high as sixth in the voting, the powerful party bosses never considered him a serious candidate. After ten ballots, the delegates settled on Senator Warren G. Harding of Ohio as their nominee for President. Fuess, 259â\x80\x93260  When the time came to select a Vice Presidential nominee, the party bosses had also made a decision on who they would nominate: Senator Irvine Lenroot of Wisconsin. Fuess, 261  A delegate from Oregon, Wallace McCamant, having read Have Faith in Massachusetts, proposed Coolidge for Vice President instead.  The suggestion caught on quickly, and Coolidge found himself unexpectedly nominated. Fuess, 262â\x80\x93264',
 'President Harding and Vice President Coolidge and their wives.',
 'The Democrats nominated another Ohioan, James M. Cox, for President and the Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Franklin D. Roosevelt, for Vice President. The question of the United States joining the League of Nations was a major issue in the campaign, as was the unfinished legacy of Progressivism. Sobel, 204â\x80\x93212  Harding ran a "front-porch" campaign from his home in Marion, Ohio, but Coolidge took to the campaign trail in the Upper South, New York, and New England. Sobel, 204â\x80\x93207  On November 2 1920, Harding and Coolidge were victorious in a landslide, winning every state outside the South.  ;    They also won in Tennessee, the first time a Republican ticket had won a Southern state since Reconstruction.',
 'The Vice Presidency did not carry many official duties, but Coolidge was invited by President Harding to attend cabinet meetings, making him the first Vice President to do so. Sobel, 210â\x80\x93211  He gave speeches around the country, but none were especially noteworthy. Sobel, 219; McCoy, 136',
 'As Vice President, Coolidge and his vivacious wife Grace were invited to quite a few parties, where the legend of "Silent Cal" was born. It was from this time most of the jokes and anecdotes at his expense originate. Although Coolidge was known to be a skilled and effective public speaker, in private he was a man of few words and was therefore commonly referred to as "Silent Cal." A possibly apocryphal story has it that Dorothy Parker, seated next to him at a dinner, said to him, "Mr. Coolidge, I\'ve made a bet against a fellow who said it was impossible to get more than two words out of you." His famous reply: "You lose." Hannaford, 169  It was also Parker who, upon learning that Coolidge had died, reportedly remarked, "How can they tell?" Greenberg, 9  Coolidge often seemed uncomfortable among fashionable Washington society; when asked why he continued to attend so many of their dinner parties, he replied "Got to eat somewhere." Sobel, 217',
 'As President, Coolidge\'s reputation as a quiet man continued. "The words of a President have an enormous weight," he would later write, "and ought not to be used indiscriminately." Sobel, 243  Coolidge was aware of his stiff reputation; indeed, he cultivated it. "I think the American people want a solemn ass as a President," he once told Ethel Barrymore, "and I think I will go along with them." Greenberg, 60',
 "Coolidge's father, John Calvin Coolidge, Sr.",
 "On August 2 1923, President Harding died while on a speaking tour in California. See the main article, Warren Harding#Death in office for a full description  Vice President Coolidge was visiting his family home, which did not have electricity or a telephone, in Vermont when he received word of Harding's death. Fuess, 308â\x80\x93309  Coolidge dressed, said a prayer, and came downstairs to greet the reporters who had assembled.  His father, a notary public, administered the oath of office in the family's parlor by the light of a kerosene lamp at 2:47 a.m. on August 3, 1923; Coolidge was re-sworn by Justice A. A. Hoehling of the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia upon his return to Washington. Fuess, 310â\x80\x93315",
 'Coolidge signing the Immigration Act and some appropriation bills. General John J. Pershing looks on.',
 "The nation did not know what to make of its new President; Coolidge had not stood out in the Harding administration and many had expected him to be replaced on the ballot in 1924. Sobel, 226â\x80\x93228; Fuess, 303â\x80\x93305; Ferrell, 43â\x80\x9351  He chose C. Bascom Slemp, a Virginia Congressman and experienced federal politician, as his secretary (a position equivalent to the modern White House Chief of Staff). Fuess, 320â\x80\x93322  Although many of Harding's cabinet appointees were scandal-tarred, Coolidge announced that he would not demand any of their resignations, believing that since the people had elected Harding, he should carry on Harding's presidency, at least until the next election.",
 "He addressed Congress when it reconvened on December 6 1923, giving a speech that echoed many of Harding's themes, including immigration restriction and the need for the government to arbitrate the coal strikes then ongoing in Pennsylvania. Fuess, 328â\x80\x93329; Sobel, 248â\x80\x93249  The Washington Naval Treaty was proclaimed just one month into Coolidge's term, and was generally well received in the country.  In May 1924, the World War I veterans' Bonus Bill was passed over his veto. Fuess, 341  Coolidge signed the Immigration Act later that year, though he appended a signing statement expressing his unhappiness with the bill's specific exclusion of Japanese immigrants. Fuess, 342; Sobel, 269  Just before the Republican Convention began, Coolidge signed into law the Revenue Act of 1924, which decreased personal income tax rates while increasing the estate tax, and creating a gift tax to reinforce the transfer tax system. Sobel, 278â\x80\x93279",
 'Electoral votes by state, 1924.',
 'The Republican Convention was held from June 10 to June 12 1924 in Cleveland, Ohio; President Coolidge was nominated on the first ballot. Fuess, 345  The convention nominated Frank Lowden of Illinois for Vice President on the second ballot, but he declined via telegram. Fuess, 346  Former Brigadier General Charles G. Dawes, who would win the Nobel Peace Prize in 1925, was nominated on the third ballot; he accepted.',
 "John W. DavisThe Democrats held their convention a month later in New York City. The convention soon deadlocked, and after 103 ballots, the delegates finally agreed on a compromise candidate, John W. Davis. Charles W. Bryan was nominated for Vice President. The Democrats' hopes were buoyed when Robert M. La Follette, Sr., a Republican Senator from Wisconsin, split from the party to form a new Progressive Party. Many believed that the split in the Republican party, like the one in 1912, would allow a Democrat to win the Presidency. Sobel, 300",
 'Shortly after the conventions Coolidge experienced a personal tragedy. Coolidge\'s younger son, Calvin, Jr., developed a blister from playing tennis on the White House courts. The blister became infected, and Calvin, Jr. died. After that Coolidge became even more withdrawn. He later said that "when he died, the power and glory of the Presidency went with him." Autobiography, 190  In spite of his sadness, Coolidge ran his conventional campaign; he never maligned his opponents (or even mentioned them by name) and delivered speeches on his theory of government, including several that were broadcast over radio. Sobel, 300â\x80\x93301  It was easily the most subdued campaign since 1896, partly because the President was grieving for his son, but partly because Coolidge\'s style was naturally non-confrontational. Sobel, 302â\x80\x93303  The other candidates campaigned in a more modern fashion, but despite the split in the Republican party, the results were very similar to those of 1920. Coolidge and Dawes won every state outside the South except for Wisconsin, La Follette\'s home state. Coolidge had a popular vote majority of 2.5 million over his opponents\' combined total.  ,',
 'Coolidge, reporters, and cameramen',
 'During Coolidge\'s presidency the United States experienced the period of rapid economic growth known as the "Roaring Twenties." His economic policy has often been misquoted as "generally speaking, the business of the American people is business" (full quotation below, at left). Although some commentators have criticized Coolidge as a doctrinaire laissez-faire ideologue, historian Robert Sobel offers some context based on Coolidge\'s sense of federalism: "As Governor of Massachusetts, Coolidge supported wages and hours legislation, opposed child labor, imposed economic controls during World War I, favored safety measures in factories, and even worker representation on corporate boards. Did he support these measures while president? No, because in the 1920s, such matters were considered the responsibilities of state and local governments." Sobel, Robert.  Coolidge and American Business. John F. Kennedy Library and Museum. Retrieved from March 08, 2006 version in Internet Archive on May 18, 2007. See also Greenberg, 47.',
 'Coolidge with his Vice President, Charles G. Dawes.',
 'Coolidge\'s taxation policy, and that of his Secretary of the Treasury, Andrew Mellon, was that taxes should be lower and that fewer people should have to pay them. Sobel, 310â\x80\x93311; Greenberg, 127â\x80\x93129  The Congress concurred, and the tax burden on Americans was reduced in Coolidge\'s term.  In addition to these tax cuts, Coolidge proposed reductions in federal expenditures and retiring some of the federal debt. Sobel, 310â\x80\x93311; Fuess, 382â\x80\x93383  To that end, Coolidge declined to sign some of the spending that Congress approved. He vetoed the proposed McNary-Haugen Farm Relief Bill of 1926, designed to allow the federal government to purchase agricultural surpluses and sell them abroad at lowered prices. Coolidge declared that agriculture must stand "on an independent business basis," and said that "government control cannot be divorced from political control." Fuess, 383â\x80\x93384  He favored Herbert Hoover\'s proposal to modernize agriculture to create profits, instead of manipulating prices. When Congress re-passed the McNary-Haugen bill in 1927, Coolidge vetoed it again. Fuess, 388; Ferrell, 93  "Farmers never have made much money," said Coolidge, the Vermont farmer\'s son, "I do not believe we can do much about it." Ferrell, 86',
 "Coolidge has often been criticized for his actions during the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, the worst natural disaster to hit the Gulf Coast until Hurricane Katrina in 2005. Sobel, 315; Barry, 286â\x80\x93287; Greenberg, 132â\x80\x93135  Although he did eventually name Secretary Hoover to a commission in charge of flood relief, Coolidge's lack of interest in federal flood control has been much maligned.  Coolidge did not believe that personally visiting the region after the floods would accomplish anything, but would be seen only as political grandstanding, and he did not want to incur the federal spending that flood control would require. McCoy, 330â\x80\x93331  Congress wanted a bill that would place the federal government completely in charge of flood mitigation; Coolidge wanted the property owners to bear much of the costs. Barry, 372â\x80\x93374  When Congress passed a compromise measure in 1928, Coolidge declined to take credit for it and signed the bill in private on May 15. Greenberg, 135",
 "Coolidge's official White House portraitWhile he was not an isolationist, Coolidge was reluctant to enter foreign alliances. Sobel, 342  Coolidge saw the landslide Republican victory of 1920 as a rejection of the Wilsonian idea that the United States should join the League of Nations. McCoy, 184â\x80\x93185  While not completely opposed to the idea, Coolidge believed the League, as then constituted, did not serve American interests, and he did not advocate membership in it.  He spoke in favor of the United States joining the Permanent Court of International Justice, provided that the nation would not be bound by advisory decisions. McCoy, 360  The Senate eventually approved joining the Court (with reservations) in 1926. McCoy, 363  The League of Nations accepted the reservations, but suggested some modifications of their own. Greenberg, 114â\x80\x93116  The Senate failed to act; the United States never joined the World Court.",
 'Coolidge\'s best-known initiative was the Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928, named for Coolidge\'s Secretary of State, Frank B. Kellogg, and French foreign minister Aristide Briand. The treaty, ratified in 1929, committed signatories including the U.S., the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, and Japan to "renounce war, as an instrument of national policy in their relations with one another." Fuess, 421â\x80\x93423  The treaty did not actually achieve its result â\x80\x94 the outlawry of war â\x80\x94 but did provide the founding principle for international law after World War II. McCoy, 380â\x80\x93381; Greenberg, 123â\x80\x93124',
 "Coolidge continued the previous administration's policy not to recognize the Soviet Union. McCoy, 181  He also continued the United States' support for the elected government of Mexico against the rebels there, lifting the arms embargo on that country. McCoy, 178â\x80\x93179  He sent his close friend Dwight Morrow to Mexico as the American ambassador. Sobel, 349  Coolidge represented the U.S. at the Pan American Conference in Havana, Cuba, making him the only sitting U.S. President to visit the country. The United States' occupation of Nicaragua and Haiti continued under his administration, but Coolidge withdrew American troops from the Dominican Republic in 1924. Fuess, 414â\x80\x93417; Ferrell, 122â\x80\x93123",
 'President Coolidge signed a bill granting Native Americans full U.S. citizenship. Coolidge is shown above on October 22, 1924 holding a ceremonial hat. Coolidge did not seek renomination; he announced his decision to reporters, in writing, with typical terseness: "I do not choose to run for President in 1928." Sobel, 370  After allowing them to take that in, Coolidge elaborated. "If I take another term, I will be in the White House till 1933 â\x80¦ Ten years in Washington is longer than any other man has had itâ\x80\x94too long!" White, 361  In his memoirs, Coolidge explained his decision not to run: "The Presidential office takes a heavy toll of those who occupy it and those who are dear to them. While we should not refuse to spend and be spent in the service of our country, it is hazardous to attempt what we feel is beyond our strength to accomplish." Autobiography, 239  After leaving office, he and Grace returned to Northampton, where he wrote his memoirs. The Republicans retained the White House in 1928 in the person of Coolidge\'s Secretary of Commerce, Herbert Hoover.',
 'Coolidge had been lukewarm on the choice of Hoover as his successor; on one occasion he remarked that "for six years that man has given me unsolicited advice all of it bad." Brandes, ___  Even so, Coolidge had no desire to split the party by publicly opposing the popular Commerce Secretary\'s nomination. McCoy, 390â\x80\x93391; Wilson, 122â\x80\x93123  The delegates did consider nominating Vice President Charles Dawes to be Hoover\'s running mate, but the convention selected Senator Charles Curtis instead. Wilson, 125â\x80\x93127',
 "Despite his reputation as a quiet and even reclusive politician, Coolidge made use of the new medium of radio and made radio history several times while President. He made himself available to reporters, giving 529 press conferences, meeting with reporters more regularly than any President before or since. Greenberg, 7  His inauguration was the first presidential inauguration broadcast on radio. On 6 December 1923, Coolidge was the first President whose address to Congress was broadcast on radio. Sobel, 252  On February 12 1924, he became the first President of the United States to deliver a political speech on radio. On August 11 1924, Coolidge was filmed on the White House lawn by Lee De Forest in DeForest's Phonofilm sound-on-film process, becoming the first President to appear in a sound film. The title of the DeForest film was President Coolidge, Taken on the White House Lawn.   Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon",
 'Coolidge was the only president to have his face on a coin during his lifetime, the sesquicentennial commemorative half dollar of 1926.',
 'Chief Justice Harlan Fiske Stone',
 "Coolidge appointed one Justice to the Supreme Court of the United States, Harlan Fiske Stone in 1925. Stone was Coolidge's fellow Amherst alumnus and was serving as dean of Columbia Law School when Coolidge appointed him to be Attorney General in 1924. He appointed Stone to the Supreme Court in 1925, and the Senate approved the nomination. Fuess, 364  Stone was later appointed Chief Justice by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.",
 "Coolidge addressing a crowd at Arlington National Cemetery's Roman style Memorial Amphitheater in 1924.",
 'After the presidency, Coolidge served as chairman of the non-partisan Railroad Commission, as honorary president of the Foundation of the Blind, as a director of New York Life Insurance Company, as president of the American Antiquarian Society, and as a trustee of Amherst College.   Coolidge Family Papers, 1802â\x80\x931932, Vermont Historical Society Library. Retrieved on May 18, 2007  Coolidge received an honorary Doctor of Laws from Bates College in Lewiston, Maine.',
 'Coolidge published his autobiography in 1929 and wrote a syndicated newspaper column, "Calvin Coolidge Says," from 1930â\x80\x931931. Sobel, 403; Ferrell, 201â\x80\x93202  Faced with looming defeat in 1932, some Republicans spoke of rejecting Herbert Hoover as their party\'s nominee, and instead drafting Coolidge to run, but the former President made it clear that he was not interested in running again, and that he would publicly repudiate any effort to draft him, should it come about. Fuess, 457â\x80\x93459; Greenberg, 153  Hoover was renominated, and Coolidge made several radio addresses in support of him. Fuess, 460',
 'He died suddenly of a heart attack at his home in Northampton, "The Beeches," at 12:45 p.m., January 5 1933. Greenberg, 154â\x80\x93155  Shortly before his death, Coolidge confided to an old friend: "I feel I am no longer fit in these times." Sobel, 410',
 "Coolidge is buried beneath a simple headstone in Notch Cemetery, Plymouth Notch, Vermont, where the family homestead is maintained as a museum. The State of Vermont dedicated a new visitors' center nearby to mark Coolidge's 100th birthday on July 4 1972.    Calvin Coolidge's Brave Little State of Vermont speech is memorialized in the Hall of Inscriptions at the Vermont State House at Montpelier, Vermont.",
 '*  Coolidge, Calvin. The Autobiography of Calvin Coolidge (1929), ISBN 0944951031.',
 '* Barry, John M., Rising Tide: The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and How It Changed America (1997), ISBN 0684840022.',
 '* Ferrell, Robert H., The Presidency of Calvin Coolidge (1998), ISBN 0700608923.',
 '* Fuess, Claude M., Calvin Coolidge: The Man from Vermont (1940), ISBN 0837193206.',
 '* Greenberg, David, Calvin Coolidge, The American Presidents Series, (2006), ISBN 0805069577.',
 '* Hannaford, Peter, The Quotable Calvin Coolidge (2001), ISBN 1884592333.',
 '* McCoy, Donald, Calvin Coolidge: The Quiet President (1967), ISBN 0945707231.',
 '* Russell, Francis, A City in Terror: Calvin Coolidge and the 1919 Boston Police Strike (1975), ISBN 0807050334.',
 '* Silver, Thomas B.,  Coolidge and the Historians (1983), ISBN 0890890382.',
 '* Sobel, Robert, Coolidge: An American Enigma (1998), ISBN 0895264102.',
 '* White, William Allen,  A Puritan in Babylon: The Story of Calvin Coolidge (1938),  .',
 '* Wilson, Joan Hoff, Herbert Hoover, Forgotten Progressive (1975), ISBN 0316944165.',
 'An academic conference on Coolidge was held July 30â\x80\x9331, 1998, at the John F. Kennedy Library to mark the 75th anniversary of his lantern-light homestead inaugural.',
 'Stephen Grover Cleveland (March 18 1837   June 24 1908), the twenty-second and twenty-fourth President of the United States, was the only President to serve non-consecutive terms (1885 1889 and 1893 1897). He was defeated for reelection in 1888 by Benjamin Harrison, against whom he ran again in 1892 and won a second term. He was the only Democrat elected to the Presidency in the era of Republican political domination between 1860 and 1912, after the American Civil War. His admirers praise him for his bedrock honesty, independence, integrity, and commitment to the principles of classical liberalism. As a leader of the Bourbon Democrats, he opposed imperialism, taxes, corruption, patronage, subsidies and inflationary policies.',
 "Some of Cleveland's actions were controversial with political factions. Such criticisms include but are not limited to: his intervention in the Pullman Strike of 1894 in order to keep the railroads moving (a move which angered labor unions), his support of the gold standard, and opposition to free silver which alienated the agrarian wing of the Democrats.  Furthermore, critics complained that he had little imagination and seemed overwhelmed by the nation's economic disasters   depressions and strikes   in his second term. He lost control of his party to the agrarians and silverites in 1896.",
 'An early, undated photograph of Grover Cleveland from the Cleveland Family Papers at the New Jersey Archives.',
 'Cleveland was born in Caldwell, New Jersey to the Reverend Richard Cleveland and Anne Neal.  He was the fifth of nine children, five sons and four daughters.  He was named Stephen Grover in honor of the first pastor of the First Presbyterian Church of Caldwell, where his father was pastor at the time.  From 1841 to 1850, he lived in Fayetteville, New York  A Walking Tour of Fayetteville , but as the church frequently transferred its ministers, the family moved many times, mainly around central and southern New York State.',
 "He became involved in Democratic politics at 19 when he worked for the presidential campaign of James Buchanan. Following Buchanan's single term, the next Democrat elected president would be Cleveland himself, almost thirty years later.  During the American Civil War, Cleveland hired a replacement to avoid Lincoln's draft order of 1863.",
 'As a lawyer in Buffalo, New York, he became notable for his single-minded concentration upon whatever task faced him. He was elected sheriff of Erie County, New York in 1870 and carried out at least two hangings of condemned criminals, refusing to delegate the unpleasant task to others. Political opponents would later hold this against him, calling him the "Buffalo Hangman." Cleveland stated that he wished to take the responsibility for the executions himself and not pass it along to subordinates.',
 'In 1871 Grover Cleveland was elected Sheriff of Erie County, New York. At age 44, he emerged into a political prominence that carried him to the White House in three years.   Running as a reformer, he was elected Mayor of Buffalo in 1881, with the slogan "Public Office is a Public Trust" as his trademark of office. One newspaper, in endorsing him, said it did so for three reasons: "1. He is honest.  2. He is honest.  3. He is honest."  In 1882, he was elected Governor of New York, working closely with reform-minded Republican state legislator Theodore Roosevelt.',
 'Cleveland won the Presidency in the 1884 election with the unusual combination of support from both Democrats and reform-minded Republicans called "Mugwumps" who denounced his opponent, former Senator James G. Blaine of Maine, as corrupt.',
 'The campaign was negative. To counter Cleveland\'s image of purity, his opponents reported that Cleveland had fathered an illegitimate child while he was a lawyer in Buffalo. The derisive phrase "Ma, Ma, where\'s my Pa?", often chanted at Republican political rallies, rose as an unofficial campaign slogan for those who opposed him.',
 'Cleveland admitted to paying child support in 1874 to Maria Crofts Halpin, the woman who claimed he fathered her child named Oscar Folsom Cleveland. Halpin was involved with several men at the time, including Cleveland\'s law partner and mentor, Oscar Folsom, for whom the child was named. (Cleveland may not have been the father and is believed to have assumed responsibility because he was the only bachelor among them.) After Cleveland\'s election as President, Democratic newspapers added a line to the chant used against Cleveland and made it: "Ma, Ma, where\'s my Pa? Gone to the White House! Ha Ha Ha!"',
 "The desire for reform, blunders on behalf of Blaine, and voters' demand for honesty turned the tide for Cleveland.  Cleveland's victory made him the first Democrat elected president since James Buchanan, who was elected in 1856.",
 'Cleveland\'s administration might be characterized by his saying:  "I have only one thing to do, and that is to do right". Cleveland faced a Republican Senate and often resorted to using his veto powers. Cleveland himself insisted that, as President, his greatest accomplishment was blocking others\' bad ideas. He vigorously pursued a policy barring special favors to any economic group. Vetoing a bill to appropriate $10,000 to distribute seed grain among drought-stricken farmers in Texas, he wrote: "Federal aid in such cases encourages the expectation of paternal care on the part of the Government and weakens the sturdiness of our national character...." He also vetoed hundreds of private pension bills for American Civil War veterans. When Congress, pressured by the Grand Army of the Republic, passed a bill granting pensions for disabilities not caused by military service, Cleveland vetoed that, too. Cleveland used the veto far more often than any President up to that time. Once Cleveland told a friend that his principal duty and greatest service to the country was in preventing Congress from enacting bad bills. He also felt that if the constitution did not authorize it, he could not in good faith sign a bill into law.',
 'Cleveland lived up to his reputation of running an efficient government.  He demanded his administration get rid of extravagances and abuses.',
 'In 1885, Cleveland ordered a military campaign against the Southwestern Apache tribe under Chief Geronimo; in 1886 Geronimo was captured.',
 'President Cleveland angered railroad investors by ordering an investigation of western lands they held by government grant, involving the return of 81,000,000 acres (328,000 km²) which is the approximately equivalent to the areas of N.Y., N.J., Pa., Dela., Md., and Va.,combined. The Department of the Interior charged that the rights of way for this land must be returned to the public because the railroads failed to extend their lines according to agreements. The lands were forfeited and became part of public domain.',
 'He signed the Interstate Commerce Act, the first law attempting Federal regulation of the railroads.',
 'Cleveland was a committed non-interventionist who had campaigned in opposition to expansion and imperialism. He reversed policy and withdrew the treaty for the annexation of Hawaii negotiated by Benjamin Harrison from the consideration of the Senate.  Cleveland often quoted the advice of George Washington\'s Farewell Address in decrying alliances, and he slowed the pace of expansion that President Chester Arthur had begun.  Cleveland refused to promote Arthur\'s Nicaragua canal treaty, calling it an "entangling alliance". Free trade deals (reciprocity treaties) with Mexico and several South American countries died because there was no Senate approval. Cleveland withdrew from Senate consideration the Berlin Conference treaty which guaranteed an open door for U.S. interests in Congo.',
 'As Fareed Zakaria argued, "But while Cleveland retarded the speed and aggressiveness of U.S. foreign policy, the overall direction did not change."   Historian Charles S. Campbell argues that the audiences who listened to Cleveland and Secretary of State Thomas F. Bayard, Sr.\'s moralistic lectures "readily detected through the high moral tone a sharp eye for the national interest."   p. 77   Cleveland supported Hawaiian free trade (reciprocity) and accepted an amendment that gave the United States a coaling and naval station in Pearl Harbor. Naval orders were placed with Democratic industrialists rather than Republican ones, but the military buildup actually quickened.',
 'In his second term Cleveland stated that by 1892, the U.S. Navy had been used to promote American interests in Nicaragua, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Honduras, Argentina, Brazil, and Hawaii. Under Cleveland, the U.S. adopted a broad interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine that did not just simply forbid new European colonies but declared an American interest in any matter within the hemisphere. Fareed, p. 146',
 'In December 1887, Cleveland called on Congress to reduce high protective tariffs:',
 "The theory of our institutions guarantees to every citizen the full enjoyment of all the fruits of his industry and enterprise, with only such deduction as may be his share toward the careful and economical maintenance of the Government which protects him... the exaction of more than this is indefensible extortion and a culpable betrayal of American fairness and justice. This wrong inflicted upon those who bear the burden of national taxation, like other wrongs, multiplies a brood of evil consequences. The public Treasury... becomes a hoarding place for money needlessly withdrawn from trade and the people's use, thus crippling our national energies, suspending our country's development, preventing investment in productive enterprise, threatening financial disturbance, and inviting schemes of public plunder.",
 'He failed to lower tariffs when the Mills bill failed, and made it the central issue of his losing 1888 campaign, as Republicans under William McKinley claimed a high tariff was needed to produce high wages, high profits, and fast economic expansion.',
 'Grover Cleveland was the second President married in office, and the only President married in the White House itself ',
 "On June 2, 1886, Cleveland married Frances Cornelia Folsom, the daughter of his former law partner, in the Blue Room in the White House. He was the second President to marry while in office, and the only President to have a wedding in the White House itself. This marriage was controversial because Cleveland was the executor of the Folsom estate and supervised Frances' upbringing. Folsom, at 21 years old, was the youngest First Lady in the history of the United States. Their children were Ruth Cleveland (1891-1904); Esther Cleveland (1893-1980); Marion Cleveland (1895-1977); Richard Folsom Cleveland (1897-1974); and Francis Grover Cleveland (1903-1995).",
 '* In October 1886, Cleveland presided over the dedication of the Statue of Liberty. ',
 'Grover Cleveland',
 'Cleveland appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States during his first term.',
 'Cleveland/Thurman campaign poster',
 "Cleveland was defeated in the 1888 presidential election, in part due to fraud (See Blocks of Five). He actually led in the popular vote over Benjamin Harrison (48.6% to 47.8%), but Harrison won the Electoral College by a 233-168 margin, largely by squeaking out a barely-over-1% win in Cleveland's home state of New York; in fact, had Cleveland won his home state, he would have won the electoral vote by a count of 204-197 (201 votes then needed for victory). Note, though, that Cleveland earned 24 of his electoral votes in states that he won by less than 1% (Connecticut, Virginia, and West Virginia).",
 "Cleveland thus became one of only four men to clearly win the popular vote but lose the presidency; there would not be another such election until Al Gore's narrow loss to George W. Bush in 2000. As Frances Cleveland and the ex-president left the White House, she assured the staff that they would return in four years.",
 'The primary issues for Cleveland for the 1892 campaign were reducing the tariff and stopping free minting of silver which had depleted the gold reserves of the U.S. Treasury. Cleveland was elected again in 1892, thus becoming the only President in U.S. history to be elected to a second term which did not run in succession to the first.',
 "Shortly after Cleveland was inaugurated, the Panic of 1893 struck the stock market, and he soon faced an acute economic depression. He dealt directly with the Treasury crisis rather than with business failures, farm mortgage foreclosures, and unemployment. He obtained repeal of the mildly inflationary Sherman Silver Purchase Act. With the aid of J. P. Morgan and Wall Street, he maintained the Treasury's gold reserve.",
 "Cleveland's humiliation by Gorman and the sugar trust; cartoon by W. A. Rogers",
 'He fought to lower the tariff in 1893-1894. The Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act introduced by West Virginian Representative William L. Wilson and passed by the House would have made significant reforms. However, by the time the bill passed the Senate, guided by Democrat Arthur Pue Gorman of Maryland, it had more than 600 amendments attached that nullified most of the reforms. The "Sugar Trust" in particular made changes that favored it at the expense of the consumer. It imposed an income tax of two percent to make up for revenue that would be lost by tariff reductions. Cleveland was devastated that his program had been ruined. He denounced the revised measure as a disgraceful product of "party perfidy and party dishonor," but still allowed it to become law without his signature, believing that it was better than nothing and was at the least an improvement over the McKinley tariff.',
 'Cleveland refused to allow Eugene Debs to use the Pullman Strike to shut down most of the nation\'s passenger, freight and mail traffic in June 1894. He obtained an injunction in federal court, and when the strikers refused to obey it, he sent in federal troops to Chicago, Illinois and 20 other rail centers. "If it takes the entire army and navy of the United States to deliver a postcard in Chicago," he thundered, "that card will be delivered." Most governors supported Cleveland except Democrat John P. Altgeld of Illinois, who became his bitter foe in 1896.',
 'Cleveland\'s agrarian and silverite enemies seized control of the Democratic party in 1896, repudiated his administration and the gold standard, and nominated William Jennings Bryan on a Silver Platform. Cleveland silently supported the National Democratic Party (United States) (or "Gold Democratic") third party ticket that promised to defend the gold standard, limit government, and oppose protectionism. The party won only 100,000 votes in the general election (just over 1 percent). Agrarians again nominated Bryan in 1900, but in 1904 the conservatives, with Cleveland\'s support, regained control of the Democratic Party and nominated Alton B. Parker.',
 'Typewriters were new in 1893, and this cartoon shows Cleveland as unable to work the Democratic Party machine without jamming the keys (the key politicians in his party)',
 'Invoking the Monroe Doctrine in 1895, Cleveland forced Britain to agree to arbitration of a disputed boundary in Venezuela. His administration is credited with the modernization of the United States Navy that allowed the U.S. to decisively win the Spanish-American War in 1898, one year after he left office.',
 "In 1893, Cleveland sent former Congressman James Henderson Blount to Hawaii to investigate the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani and the establishment of a provisional government. He initially supported Blount's scathing report which blamed the U.S. for the overthrow; called for the restoration of Liliuokalani; and withdrew from the Senate the treaty of annexation of Hawaii. When the deposed Queen refused to grant amnesty as a condition of her reinstatement, and said she would execute the current government in Honolulu, Cleveland referred the matter to Congress. The Senate then produced the Morgan Report, which completely contradicted Blount's findings and found the overthrow was a completely internal affair. Following the Turpie Resolution of May 31, 1894, which vowed a policy of non-interference in Hawaiian affairs, Cleveland dropped all support for reinstating the Queen, and further went on to officially recognize and maintain diplomatic relations with the Republic of Hawaii declared on July 4, 1894.",
 'Cleveland was a stout opponent of the women\'s suffrage (voting) movement.  In a 1905 article in The Ladies Home Journal, Cleveland wrote, "Sensible and responsible women do not want to vote. The relative positions to be assumed by men and women in the working out of our civilization were assigned long ago by a higher intelligence."  *',
 'Official White House portrait of Grover Cleveland, oil on canvas, painted in 1891 by Jonathan Eastman Johnson (1824â\x80\x931906)',
 'Cleveland appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court during his second term.',
 "Two of Cleveland's nominees were rejected by the Senate.",
 '* William Hornblower, on January 15, 1894, by a vote of 24-30.',
 '* Wheeler Hazard Peckham, (the older brother of Rufus Wheeler) on February 16, 1894, by a vote of 32-41.',
 "After Cleveland began his second term in 1893, Doctor R.M. O'Reilly found an ulcerated sore a little less than one inch (24 mm) in diameter on the left lingual surface of Cleveland's hard palate. Initial biopsies were inconclusive; later the samples were proven to be a malignant cancer. Because of the financial depression of the country, Cleveland decided to have surgery performed on the tumor in secrecy to avoid further market panic. The surgery occurred on July 1, to give Cleveland time to make a full recovery in time for an August 7 address to Congress, which had recessed at the end of June.",
 "Under the guise of a vacation cruise, Cleveland, accompanied by lead surgeon Dr. Joseph Bryant, left for New York. Bryant, joined by his assistants Dr. John F. Erdmann, Dr. W.W. Keen Jr., Dr. Ferdinand Hasbrouck (dentist and anesthesiologist), and Dr. Edward Janeway, operated aboard E. C. Benedict's yacht Oneida as it sailed off Long Island. The surgery was conducted through the President's mouth, to avoid any scars or other signs of surgery. The team, sedating Cleveland with nitrous oxide (laughing gas), removed his upper left jaw and portions of his hard palate. The size of the tumor and the extent of the operation left Cleveland's mouth severely disfigured. During another surgery, an orthodontist fitted Cleveland with a hard rubber prosthesis that corrected his speech and covered up the surgery.",
 "A cover story about the removal of two bad teeth kept the suspicious press somewhat placated. Even when a newspaper story appeared giving details of the actual operation, the participating surgeons discounted the severity of what transpired during Cleveland's vacation. In 1917, one of the surgeons present on the Oneida (Dr. W.W. Keen, Jr.) wrote an article detailing the operation. The lump was preserved and is on display at the Mütter Museum in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.  The final diagnosis was verrucous carcinoma and the president was cured by the surgical excision.",
 'Oil painting of Grover Cleveland, painted in 1899 by Anders Zorn.',
 "After leaving the White House, Cleveland lived in retirement at his estate, Westland Mansion, in Princeton, New Jersey. For a time he was a trustee of Princeton University, bringing him into opposition to the school's president, Woodrow Wilson. Conservative Democrats hoped to nominate him for another presidential term in 1904, but his age and health forced them to turn to other candidates. Cleveland consulted occasionally with President Theodore Roosevelt, with whom he had constructively worked while Governor of New York decades before.",
 "The former president had been scheduled to be the Chairman and Master of Ceremonies for Robert Fulton Day on September 24, 1907 at the Jamestown Exposition at Sewell's Point on Hampton Roads, Virginia. However, ill-health forced him to cancel, and his role was filled by humorist Mark Twain.",
 'Cleveland died in 1908 from a heart attack with his wife at his side. He is buried in the Princeton Cemetery of the Nassau Presbyterian Church.',
 'Cleveland on the $1000 bill',
 "Cleveland's portrait was on the U.S. $1000 bill from 1928 to 1946. He also appeared on a $1000 bill of 1907 and the first few issues of the $20 Federal Reserve notes from 1914.",
 'Since he was both the 22nd and 24th President, he will be featured on two separate dollar coins to be released in 2012 as part of the Presidential $1 Coin Act of 2005.',
 'In 2006, Free New York, a nonprofit and nonpartisan research group, began raising funds to purchase the former Fairfield Library in Buffalo, New York and transform it into the Grover Cleveland Presidential Library & Museum.',
 'Statue of Grover Cleveland outside City Hall in Buffalo, New York',
 "* Cleveland, Grover.  about Hawaii.'' (1893).",
 '** This is the handbook of the Gold Democrats who strongly supported Cleveland and justified his policies, while opposing Bryan.',
 '*David T. Beito and Linda Royster Beito,  "Gold Democrats and the Decline of Classical Liberalism, 1896-1900,"Independent Review 4 (Spring 2000), 555-75.',
 '* Graff, Henry F. Grover Cleveland (2002), short overview.',
 '*  Wilson, Woodrow, Mr. Cleveland as President  Atlantic Monthly (March 1897): pp. 289-301 online Woodrow Wilson became President in 1912; he was a Bourbon Democrat when he wrote the favorable essay.',
 "Sir Isaac Newton FRS ( ) (4 January 1643 â\x80\x93 March 31 1727)   [  OS: December 25 1642 â\x80\x93 March 20 1727 ]    was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, and alchemist. His treatise Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, laying the groundwork for classical mechanics, which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries and is the basis for modern engineering.  He showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts about heliocentrism and advancing the scientific revolution.",
 'In mechanics, Newton enunciated the principles of conservation of momentum and angular momentum. In optics, he invented the reflecting telescope and developed a theory of colour based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into a visible spectrum.  He also formulated an empirical law of cooling and studied the speed of sound.',
 'In mathematics, Newton shares the credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of the calculus. He also demonstrated the generalized binomial theorem, developed the so-called "Newton\'s method" for approximating the zeroes of a function, and contributed to the study of power series.',
 'In a 2005 poll of the Royal Society of who had the greatest effect on the history of science, Newton was deemed more influential than Albert Einstein.',
 "Newton in a 1702 portrait by Godfrey Kneller. Isaac Newton was born on January 4, 1643   [ OS: December 25, 1642 ]    at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire. At the time of Newton's birth, England had not adopted the latest papal calendar and therefore his date of birth was recorded as Christmas Day, December 25, 1642. Newton was born three months after the death of his father. Born prematurely, he was a small child; his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug. When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabus Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Margery Ayscough. The young Isaac disliked his stepfather and held some enmity towards his mother for marrying him, as revealed by this entry in a list of sins committed up to the age of 19:  Threatening my father and mother Smith to burn them and the house over them. Cohen, I.B. (1970). Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Vol. 11, p.43. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons",
 'Newton may have suffered from Asperger syndrome, a form of autism.',
 'According to E.T. Bell and H. Eves:',
 ' Newton began his schooling in the village schools and was later sent to The King\'s School, Grantham, where he became the top student in the school. At King\'s, he lodged with the local apothecary, William Clarke and eventually became engaged to the apothecary\'s stepdaughter, Anne Storer, before he went off to the University of Cambridge at the age of 19. As Newton became engrossed in his studies, the romance cooled and Miss Storer married someone else. It is said he kept a warm memory of this love, but Newton had no other recorded "sweet-hearts" and never married.',
 'There are a rumours that he remained a virgin.  Book Review Isaac Newton biography December 2003  However, Bell and Eves\' sources for this claim, William Stukeley and Mrs. Vincent (the former Miss Storer   actually named Katherine, not Anne), merely say that Newton entertained "a passion" for Storer while he lodged at the Clarke house.',
 "From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The King's School, Grantham (where his signature can still be seen upon a library window sill). He was removed from school, and by October 1659, he was to be found at Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, where his mother, widowed by now for a second time, attempted to make a farmer of him. He was, by later reports of his contemporaries, thoroughly unhappy with the work. It appears to have been Henry Stokes, master at the King's School, who persuaded his mother to send him back to school so that he might complete his education. This he did at the age of eighteen, achieving an admirable final report.",
 "In June 1661, he was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge. At that time, the college's teachings were based on those of Aristotle, but Newton preferred to read the more advanced ideas of modern philosophers such as Descartes and astronomers such as Galileo, Copernicus and Kepler. In 1665, he discovered the generalized binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that would later become calculus. Soon after Newton had obtained his degree in April of 1665, the University closed down as a precaution against the Great Plague. For the next 2 years, Newton worked at his home in Woolsthorpe on calculus, optics and the law of gravitation.",
 'Isaac Newton (Bolton, Sarah K. Famous Men of Science. NY: Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1889)',
 'Most modern historians believe that Newton and Leibniz had developed calculus independently, using their own unique notations. According to Newton\'s inner circle, Newton had worked out his method years before Leibniz, yet he published almost nothing about it until 1693, and did not give a full account until 1704. Meanwhile, Leibniz began publishing a full account of his methods in 1684. Moreover, Leibniz\'s notation and "differential Method" were universally adopted on the Continent, and after 1820 or so, in the British Empire. Whereas Leibniz\'s notebooks show the advancement of the ideas from early stages until maturity, there is only the end product in Newton\'s known notes. Newton claimed that he had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared being mocked for it . Newton had a very close relationship with Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, who from the beginning was impressed by Newton\'s gravitational theory. In 1691 Duillier planned to prepare a new version of Newton\'s Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, but never finished it. Some of Newton\'s biographers have suggested that the relationship may have been romantic.  Biography of Isaac Newton at  www.knittingcircle.org.uk   However, in 1694 the relationship between the two men cooled down. At the time, Duillier had also exchanged several letters with Leibniz.',
 "Starting in 1699, other members of the Royal Society (of which Newton was a member) accused Leibniz of plagiarism, and the dispute broke out in full force in 1711. Newton's Royal Society proclaimed in a study that it was Newton who was the true discoverer and labeled Leibniz a fraud. This study was cast into doubt when it was later found that Newton himself wrote the study's concluding remarks on Leibniz. Thus began the bitter Newton v. Leibniz calculus controversy, which marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz until the latter's death in 1716.",
 "Newton is generally credited with the generalized binomial theorem, valid for any exponent. He discovered Newton's identities, Newton's method, classified cubic plane curves (polynomials of degree three in two variables), made substantial contributions to the theory of finite differences, and was the first to use fractional indices and to employ coordinate geometry to derive solutions to Diophantine equations. He approximated partial sums of the harmonic series by logarithms (a precursor to Euler's summation formula), and was the first to use power series with confidence and to revert power series. He also discovered a new formula for calculating pi.",
 "He was elected Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 1669. In that day, any fellow of Cambridge or Oxford had to be an ordained Anglican priest. However, the terms of the Lucasian professorship required that the holder not be active in the church (presumably so as to have more time for science). Newton argued that this should exempt him from the ordination requirement, and Charles II, whose permission was needed, accepted this argument. Thus a conflict between Newton's religious views and Anglican orthodoxy was averted.",
 'From 1670 to 1672, Newton lectured on optics. During this period he investigated the refraction of light, demonstrating that a prism could decompose white light into a spectrum of colours, and that a lens and a second prism could recompose the multicoloured spectrum into white light. ',
 "A replica of Newton's 6-inch reflecting telescope of 1672 for the Royal Society.",
 "He also showed that the coloured light does not change its properties, by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects.  Newton noted that regardless of whether it was reflected or scattered or transmitted, it stayed the same colour. Thus the colours we observe are the result of how objects interact with the incident already-coloured light, not the result of objects generating the colour. For more details, see Newton's theory of colour.",
 "From this work he concluded that any refracting telescope would suffer from the dispersion of light into colours, and invented a reflecting telescope (today known as a Newtonian telescope) to bypass that problem. By grinding his own mirrors, using Newton's rings to judge the quality of the optics for his telescopes, he was able to produce a superior instrument to the refracting telescope, due primarily to the wider diameter of the mirror. In 1671 the Royal Society asked for a demonstration of his reflecting telescope. Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes On Colour, which he later expanded into his Opticks. When Robert Hooke criticised some of Newton's ideas, Newton was so offended that he withdrew from public debate. The two men remained enemies until Hooke's death.",
 "Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles and were refracted by accelerating toward the denser medium, but he had to associate them with waves to explain the diffraction of light (Opticks Bk. II, Props. XII-L). Later physicists instead favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for diffraction. Today's quantum mechanics, photons and the idea of wave-particle duality bear only a minor resemblance to Newton's understanding of light.",
 'In his Hypothesis of Light of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the ether to transmit forces between particles. The contact with the theosophist Henry More, revived his interest in alchemy. He replaced the ether with occult forces based on Hermetic ideas of attraction and repulsion between particles. John Maynard Keynes, who acquired many of Newton\'s writings on alchemy, stated that "Newton was not the first of the age of reason: he was the last of the magicians."    Newton\'s interest in alchemy cannot be isolated from his contributions to science.   notes that Newton apparently abandoned his alchemical researches.  (This was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and science.) Had he not relied on the occult idea of action at a distance, across a vacuum, he might not have developed his theory of gravity. (See also Isaac Newton\'s occult studies.)',
 'In 1704 Newton wrote Opticks, in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light. He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation "Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another, ...and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition?"   quoting Opticks   Newton also constructed a primitive form of a frictional electrostatic generator, using a glass globe (Optics, 8th Query).',
 "Newton's own copy of his Principia, with hand-written corrections for the second edition.",
 "In 1677, Newton returned to his work on mechanics, i.e., gravitation and its effect on the orbits of planets, with reference to Kepler's laws of planetary motion, and consulting with Hooke and Flamsteed on the subject. He published his results in De Motu Corporum (1684). This contained the beginnings of the laws of motion that would inform the Principia.",
 "The Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (now known as the Principia) was published on 5 July 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Edmond Halley. In this work Newton stated the three universal laws of motion that were not to be improved upon for more than two hundred years. He used the Latin word gravitas (weight) for the force that would become known as gravity, and defined the law of universal gravitation. In the same work he presented the first analytical determination, based on Boyle's law, of the speed of sound in air.",
 'With the Principia, Newton became internationally recognised. He acquired a circle of admirers, including the Swiss-born mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, with whom he formed an intense relationship that lasted until 1693. The end of this friendship led Newton to a nervous breakdown.',
 'Isaac Newton in 1712. Portrait by Sir James Thornhill.',
 "In the 1690s Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal interpretation of the Bible. Henry More's belief in the universe and rejection of Cartesian dualism may have influenced Newton's religious ideas. A manuscript he sent to John Locke in which he disputed the existence of the Trinity was never published. Later works â\x80\x94 The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728) and Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John (1733) â\x80\x94 were published after his death. He also devoted a great deal of time to alchemy (see above).",
 'Newton was also a member of the Parliament of England from 1689 to 1690 and in 1701, but his only recorded comments were to complain about a cold draft in the chamber and request that the window be closed.',
 'Newton moved to London to take up the post of warden of the Royal Mint in 1696, a position that he had obtained through the patronage of Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, then Chancellor of the Exchequer. He took charge of England\'s great recoining, somewhat treading on the toes of Master Lucas (and securing the job of deputy comptroller of the temporary Chester branch for Edmond Halley). Newton became perhaps the best-known Master of the Mint upon Lucas\' death in 1699, a position Newton held until his death.  These appointments were intended as sinecures, but Newton took them seriously, retiring from his Cambridge duties in 1701, and exercising his power to reform the currency and punish clippers and counterfeiters. As Master of the Mint in 1717 Newton unofficially moved the Pound Sterling from the silver standard to the gold standard by creating a relationship between gold coins and the silver penny in the "Law of Queen Anne"; these were all great reforms at the time, adding considerably to the wealth and stability of England.  It was his work at the Mint, rather than his earlier contributions to science, that earned him a knighthood from Queen Anne in 1705.',
 "Newton's grave in Westminster Abbey",
 "Newton was made President of the Royal Society in 1703 and an associate of the French Académie des Sciences. In his position at the Royal Society, Newton made an enemy of John Flamsteed, the Astronomer Royal, by prematurely publishing Flamsteed's star catalogue, which Newton had used in his studies.",
 'Newton died in London on March 31, 1727   [ OS: March 20, 1727 ]   , and was buried in Westminster Abbey. His half-niece, Catherine Barton Conduitt, Westfall 1980, p. 44.  served as his hostess in social affairs at his house on Jermyn Street in London; he was her "very loving Uncle," Westfall 1980, p. 595  according to his letter to her when she was recovering from smallpox.  Although Newton, who had no children, had divested much of his estate onto relatives in his last years he actually died intestate.',
 "After his death, Newton's body was discovered to have had massive amounts of mercury in it, probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits. Mercury poisoning could explain Newton's eccentricity in late life.",
 'Although the laws of motion and universal gravitation became Newton\'s best-known discoveries, he warned against using them to view the universe as a mere machine, as if akin to a great clock. He said, "Gravity explains the motions of the planets, but it cannot explain who set the planets in motion. God governs all things and knows all that is or can be done."',
 "His scientific fame notwithstanding, Newton's studies of the Bible and of the early Church Fathers were also noteworthy.  Newton wrote works on textual criticism, most notably An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture. He also placed the crucifixion of Jesus Christ at 3 April, AD 33, which agrees with one traditionally accepted date. John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew, v. 1, pp. 382â\x80\x93402 after narrowing the years to 30 or 33, provisionally judges 30 most likely.  He also attempted, unsuccessfully, to find hidden messages within the Bible (see Bible code).",
 "Newton may have rejected the church's doctrine of the Trinity. In a minority view, T.C. Pfizenmaier argues that he more likely held the Eastern Orthodox view of the Trinity rather than the Western one held by Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and most Protestants.    In his own day, he was also accused of being a Rosicrucian (as were many in the Royal Society and in the court of Charles II).",
 'In his own lifetime, Newton wrote more on religion than he did on natural science. He believed in a rationally immanent world, but he rejected the hylozoism implicit in Leibniz and Baruch Spinoza. Thus, the ordered and dynamically informed universe could be understood, and must be understood, by an active reason, but this universe, to be perfect and ordained, had to be regular.',
 'Newton, by William Blake; here, Newton is depicted as a "divine geometer"',
 'Newton and Robert Boyleâ\x80\x99s mechanical philosophy was promoted by rationalist pamphleteers as a viable alternative to the pantheists and enthusiasts, and was accepted hesitantly by orthodox preachers as well as dissident preachers like the latitudinarians.    Thus, the clarity and simplicity of science was seen as a way to combat the emotional and metaphysical superlatives of both superstitious enthusiasm and the threat of atheism,    and, at the same time, the second wave of English deists used Newton\'s discoveries to demonstrate the possibility of a "Natural Religion."',
 'The attacks made against pre-Enlightenment "magical thinking," and the mystical elements of Christianity, were given their foundation with Boyleâ\x80\x99s mechanical conception of the universe. Newton gave Boyleâ\x80\x99s ideas their completion through mathematical proofs and, perhaps more importantly, was very successful in popularising them.    Newton refashioned the world governed by an interventionist God into a world crafted by a God that designs along rational and universal principles.    These principles were available for all people to discover, allowed people to pursue their own aims fruitfully in this life, not the next, and to perfect themselves with their own rational powers.',
 'Newton saw God as the master creator whose existence could not be denied in the face of the grandeur of all creation. Principia, Book III; cited in; Newtonâ\x80\x99s Philosophy of Nature: Selections from his writings, p. 42, ed. H.S. Thayer, Hafner Library of Classics, NY, 1953.  A Short Scheme of the True Religion, manuscript quoted in Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton by Sir David Brewster, Edinburgh, 1850; cited in; ibid, p. 65.  Webb, R.K. ed. Knud Haakonssen. â\x80\x9cThe emergence of Rational Dissent.â\x80\x9d Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1996. p19.  But the unforeseen theological consequence of his conception of God, as Leibniz pointed out, was that God was now entirely removed from the worldâ\x80\x99s affairs, since the need for intervention would only evidence some imperfection in Godâ\x80\x99s creation, something impossible for a perfect and omnipotent creator.  Westfall, Richard S. Science and Religion in Seventeenth-Century England. p201.  Leibniz\'s theodicy cleared God from the responsibility for "l\'origine du mal" by making God removed from participation in his creation. The understanding of the world was now brought down to the level of simple human reason, and humans, as Odo Marquard argued, became responsible for the correction and elimination of evil. Marquard, Odo. "Burdened and Disemburdened Man and the Flight into Unindictability," in Farewell to Matters of Principle. Robert M. Wallace trans. London: Oxford UP, 1989.',
 'On the other hand, latitudinarian and Newtonian ideas taken too far resulted in the millenarians, a religious faction dedicated to the concept of a mechanical universe, but finding in it the same enthusiasm and mysticism that the Enlightenment had fought so hard to extinguish. Jacob, Margaret C. The Newtonians and the English Revolution: 1689â\x80\x931720. p100â\x80\x93101.',
 'In a manuscript he wrote in 1704 in which he describes his attempts to extract scientific information from the Bible, he estimated that the world would end no earlier than 2060. In predicting this he said, "This I mention not to assert when the time of the end shall be, but to put a stop to the rash conjectures of fanciful men who are frequently predicting the time of the end, and by doing so bring the sacred prophesies into discredit as often as their predictions fail."',
 'As warden of the Royal Mint, Newton estimated that 20% of the coins taken in during The Great Recoinage were counterfeit. Counterfeiting was high treason, punishable by being hanged, drawn and quartered. Despite this, convictions of the most flagrant criminals could be extremely difficult to achieve; however, Newton proved to be equal to the task.',
 'He gathered much of that evidence himself, disguised, while he hung out at bars and taverns. For all the barriers placed to prosecution, and separating the branches of government, English law still had ancient and formidable customs of authority. Newton was made a justice of the peace and between June 1698 and Christmas 1699 conducted some 200 cross-examinations of witnesses, informers and suspects. Newton won his convictions and in February 1699, he had ten prisoners waiting to be executed.',
 "Possibly Newton's greatest triumph as the king's attorney was against William Chaloner. One of Chaloner's schemes was to set up phony conspiracies of Catholics and then turn in the hapless conspirators whom he entrapped. Chaloner made himself rich enough to posture as a gentleman. Petitioning Parliament, Chaloner accused the Mint of providing tools to counterfeiters (a charge also made by others). He proposed that he be allowed to inspect the Mint's processes in order to improve them. He petitioned Parliament to adopt his plans for a coinage that could not be counterfeited, while at the same time striking false coins. Newton was outraged, and went about the work to uncover anything about Chaloner. During his studies, he found that Chaloner was engaged in counterfeiting. He immediately put Chaloner on trial, but Mr Chaloner had friends in high places, and to Newton's horror, Chaloner walked free. Newton put him on trial a second time with conclusive evidence. Chaloner was convicted of high treason and hanged, drawn and quartered on March 23 1699 at Tyburn gallows. Westfall 1980, pp. 571â\x80\x935",
 'Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessorsâ\x80\x94Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principallyâ\x80\x94as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of Nature and Natural Law to every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded. Cassels, Alan. Ideology and International Relations in the Modern World. p2.',
 "It was Newtonâ\x80\x99s conception of the universe based upon Natural and rationally understandable laws that became the seed for Enlightenment ideology. Locke and Voltaire applied concepts of Natural Law to political systems advocating intrinsic rights; the physiocrats and Adam Smith applied Natural conceptions of psychology and self-interest to economic systems and the sociologists criticised the current social order for trying to fit history into Natural models of progress.  Monboddo and Samuel Clarke resisted elements of Newton's work, but eventually rationalised it to conform with their strong religious views of nature.",
 'The famous three laws of motion:',
 "# Newton's First Law (also known as the Law of Inertia) states that an object at rest tends to stay at rest and that an object in uniform motion tends to stay in uniform motion unless acted upon by a net external force.",
 "# Newton's Second Law states that an applied force,   F  , on an object equals the time rate of change of its momentum,   p  . Mathematically, this is written as   \\vec F = \\frac{d\\vec p}{dt} \\, = \\, \\frac{d}{dt} (m \\vec v) \\, = \\, \\vec v \\, \\frac{dm}{dt} + m \\, \\frac{d\\vec v}{dt} \\,.    Assuming the mass to be constant, the first term vanishes. Defining the acceleration to be  \\vec a \\ =\\  d\\vec v/dt   results in the famous equation   \\vec F = m \\, \\vec a \\,  which states that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force acting on the object and inversely proportional to its mass. In the MKS system of measurement, mass is given in kilograms, acceleration in metres per second squared, and force in newtons (named in his honour).",
 "# Newton's Third Law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.",
 "A reputed descendant of Newton's apple tree, found in the Botanic Gardens in Cambridge.",
 "A popular story claims that Newton was inspired to formulate his theory of universal gravitation by the fall of an apple from a tree.  Cartoons have gone further to suggest the apple actually hit Newton's head, and that its impact somehow made him aware of the force of gravity.  John Conduitt, Newton's assistant at the Royal Mint and husband of Newton's niece, described the event when he wrote about Newton's life:",
 'The question was not whether gravity existed, but whether it extended so far from Earth that it could also be the force holding the moon to its orbit. Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of the distance, one could indeed calculate the Moon\'s orbital period, and get good agreement. He guessed the same force was responsible for other orbital motions, and hence named it "universal gravitation".',
 'A contemporary writer, William Stukeley, recorded in his Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton\'s Life a conversation with Newton in Kensington on 15 April 1726, in which Newton recalled "when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his mind. It was occasioned by the fall of an apple, as he sat in contemplative mood. Why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground, thought he to himself. Why should it not go sideways or upwards, but constantly to the earth\'s centre." In similar terms, Voltaire wrote in his Essay on Epic Poetry (1727), "Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens, had the first thought of his system of gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a tree." These accounts are probably exaggerations of Newton\'s own tale about sitting by a window in his home (Woolsthorpe Manor) and watching an apple fall from a tree.',
 'Various trees are claimed to be "the" apple tree which Newton describes. The King\'s School, Grantham, claims that the tree was purchased by the school, uprooted and transported to the headmaster\'s garden some years later, the staff of the [now] National Trust-owned Woolsthorpe Manor dispute this, and claim that a tree present in their gardens is the one described by Newton. A descendant of the original tree can be seen growing outside the main gate of Trinity College, Cambridge, below the room Newton lived in when he studied there. The National Fruit Collection at Brogdale  /ref> can supply grafts from their tree (ref 1948-729), which appears identical to Flower of Kent, a coarse-fleshed cooking variety.',
 '* Short Chronicle, The System of the World, Optical Lectures, The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms, Amended and De mundi systemate were published posthumously in 1728.',
 'French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange often said that Newton was the greatest genius who ever lived, and once added that he was also "the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish." Fred L. Wilson, History of Science: Newton citing: Delambre, M. "Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. le comte J. L. Lagrange," Oeuvres de Lagrange I. Paris, 1867, p. xx.  English poet Alexander Pope was moved by Newton\'s accomplishments to write the famous epitaph:',
 'Newton himself was rather more modest of his own achievements, famously writing in a letter to Robert Hooke in February 1676',
 'Historians generally think the above quote was an attack on Hooke (who was short and hunchbacked), rather than - or in addition to - a statement of modesty. The two were in a dispute over optical discoveries at the time. The latter interpretation also fits with many of his other disputes over his discoveries - such as the question of who discovered calculus as discussed above.',
 'And then in a memoir later',
 '*"The Invisible Science." Magical Egypt. Chance Gardner and John Anthony West. 2005.',
 "*Berlinski, David, Newton's Gift: How Sir Isaac Newton Unlocked the System of our World, ISBN 0-684-84392-7 (hardback), also in paperback, Simon & Schuster, (2000).",
 '* Christianson, Gale E. In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton and His Times. Collier MacMillan, (1984). 608 pages. ',
 '* Dampier, William C. & M. Dampier. Readings in the Literature of Science. Harper & Row, New York, (1959).',
 '*Gjertsen, Derek. The Newton Handbook, Routledge & Kegan Paul, (1986).',
 '* Gleick, James. Isaac Newton. Knopf, (2003). hardcover, 288 pages, ISBN 0-375-42233-1.',
 "* Hawking, Stephen, ed.  On the Shoulders of Giants.  ISBN 0-7624-1348-4 Places selections from Newton's Principia in the context of selected writings by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Einstein.",
 '* Hart, Michael J. The 100. Carol Publishing Group, (July 1992), paperback, 576 pages, ISBN 0-8065-1350-0.',
 '* Kandaswamy, Anand M.  The Newton/Leibniz Conflict in Context.  ',
 "* Keynes, John Maynard.  Essays in Biography.  W W Norton & Co, 1963, paperback, ISBN 0-393-00189-X. Keynes had taken a close interest in Newton and owned many of Newton's private papers.",
 '* Newton, Isaac. Papers and Letters in Natural Philosophy, edited by I. Bernard Cohen. Harvard University Press, 1958,1978. ISBN 0-674-46853-8. ',
 '* Shapley, Harlow, S. Rapport, and H. Wright. A Treasury of Science; "Newtonia" pp. 147â\x80\x939; "Discoveries" pp. 150-4. Harper & Bros., New York, (1946).',
 '* Simmons, J.  The giant book of scientists -- The 100 greatest minds of all time, Sydney: The Book Company, (1996).',
 '* Richard de Villamil. Newton, The man. G.D. Knox, London, 1931. Preface by Albert Einstein. Reprinted by Johnson Reprint Corporation, New York (1972).  ',
 '*Whiteside, D. T. The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton - 8 volumes, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, (1967â\x80\x9381).',
 '*Cohen, I. B. (1980). The Newtonian Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ',
 '*Dobbs, B. J. T. (1975). The Foundations of Newton\'s Alchemy or "The Hunting of the Greene Lyon." Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.',
 '*Halley, E. (1687). "Review of Newton\'s Principia." Philosophical Transactions 186:291â\x80\x93297. ',
 "*Herivel, J. W. (1965). The Background to Newton's Principia. A Study of Newton's Dynamical Researches in the Years 1664â\x80\x9384. Oxford: Clarendon Press.",
 '*Koyré, A. (1965). Newtonian Studies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ',
 "*Maclaurin, C. (1748). An Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophical Discoveries, in Four Books. London: A. Millar and J. Nourse.",
 "*Newton, I. (1934). Sir Isaac Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy and His System of the World, tr. A. Motte, rev. F. Cajori. Berkeley: University of California Press. ",
 '*Newton, I. (1952). Opticks, or A Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections & Colours of Light. New York: Dover Publications.',
 "*Newton, I. (1958). Isaac Newton's Papers and Letters on Natural Philosophy and Related Documents, eds. I. B. Cohen and R. E. Schofield. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.",
 '*Newton, I. (1959â\x80\x931977). The Correspondence of Isaac Newton, eds. H. W. Turnbull, J. F. Scott, A. R. Hall. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.',
 '*Newton, I. (1962). The Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Newton: A Selection from the Portsmouth Collection in the University Library, Cambridge, ed. A. R. Hall and M. B. Hall. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.',
 '*Newton, I. (1967). The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton, ed. D. T. Whiteside. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.',
 "*Newton, I. (1975). Isaac Newton's 'Theory of the Moon's Motion' (1702). London: Dawson. ",
 "*Pemberton, H. (1728). A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy. London: S. Palmer. ",
 "*Stukeley, W. (1936). Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life, ed. A. H. White. London: Taylor and Francis. ",
 "*Westfall, R. S. (1971). Force in Newton's Physics: The Science of Dynamics in the Seventeenth Century. London: Macdonald.",
 '*Shamos, Morris H. (1959). Great Experiments in Physics. New York: Henry Holt and Company, Inc.',
 "*  The Mind of Isaac Newton By combining images, audio, animations and interactive segments, the application gives students a sense of Newton's multifaceted mind.",
 "*  Newton's First ODE - A study by  Phaser Scientific Software on how Newton approximated the solutions of a first-order ODE using infinite series.",
 "*  Newton's Dark Secrets NOVA TV programme.",
 '*  Isaac Newton on £1 note.',
 'John Adams, Jr. (October 30,1735   July 4, 1826)  was the second President of the United States (1797 1801). He also served as America\'s first Vice President (1789 1797). He was defeated for re-election in the "Revolution of 1800" by Thomas Jefferson. Adams was also the first President to reside in the newly built White House in Washington, D.C., which was completed in 1800.',
 'Adams, a sponsor of the American Revolution in Massachusetts, was a driving force for independence in 1776; Jefferson called him the "Colossus of Independence". He represented the Continental Congress in Europe. He was a major negotiator of the eventual peace treaty with Great Britain, and chiefly responsible for obtaining the loans from the Amsterdam money market necessary for the conduct of the Revolution. His prestige secured his two elections as Washington\'s Vice President and his election to succeed him.   As President, he was frustrated by battles inside his own Federalist party against a faction led by Alexander Hamilton, but he broke with them to avert a major conflict with France in 1798, during the Quasi-War crisis. He became the founder of an important family of politicians, diplomats and historians, and in recent years his reputation has improved.',
 'Birthplace of John Adams, Quincy, Massachusetts.',
 "John Adams was the oldest of three brothers, born on October 30, 1735 (October 19, 1735 by the Old Style, Julian calendar), in Braintree, Massachusetts, though in an area which became part of Quincy, Massachusetts in 1792. His birthplace is now part of Adams National Historical Park. His father, a farmer and a Deacon, also named John (1690-1761), was a fourth-generation descendant of Henry Adams, who immigrated from Barton St David, Somerset, England, to Massachusetts Bay Colony in about 1636, from a Welsh male line called Ap Adam.  /ref> His mother was Susanna Boylston Adams. Ferling (1992) ch 1  Who is a descendant of the Boylstons of Brookline, one of the colony's most vigorous and successful families.",
 'Young Adams went to Harvard College at age sixteen (in 1751). MSN Encarta, John Adams  His father expected him to become a minister, but Adams had doubts.  After graduating in 1755, he taught school for a few years in Worcester, allowing himself time to think about his career choice.  After much reflection, he decided to become a lawyer, and studied law in the office of James Putnam, a prominent lawyer in Worcester. In 1758, he was admitted to the bar. From an early age, he developed the habit of writing descriptions of events and impressions of men.  These litter his diary.  He put the skill to good use as a lawyer, often recording cases he observed so that he could study and reflect upon them.  His report of the 1761 argument of James Otis in the superior court of Massachusetts as to the legality of Writs of Assistance is a good example. Otisâ\x80\x99s argument inspired Adams with zeal for the cause of the American colonies.  Ferling (1992) ch 2',
 'In 1764, Adams married Abigail Smith (1744â\x80\x931818), the daughter of a Congregational minister,Rev. William Smith, at Weymouth, Massachusetts. Their children were Abigail (1765-1813); future president John Quincy (1767-1848); Susanna (1768â\x80\x931770); Charles (1770-1800); Thomas Boylston (1772-1832); and Elizabeth (1775) who was stillborn.',
 'Adams was not a popular leader like his second cousin, Samuel Adams; instead, his influence emerged through his work as a constitutional lawyer and his intense analysis of historical examples, Ferling (1992) p 117  together with his thorough knowledge of the law and his dedication to the principles of republicanism. Adams often found his inborn contentiousness to be a restraint in his political career.',
 'Adams wanted to secure approval from the people, and he saw his chance in the British/colonial conflict. He became well known for his essays and energetic resolutions against British taxation and regulation. In 1774 Massachusetts sent him to the Continental Congress. In 1775 war broke out between the colonies and Great Britain. Adams was one of the first few delegates to recognize that a compromise with the British was pointless. In 1776 he worked hard to break away from Britain by using a formal declaration of independence. On July 2, 1776 Congress voted for the resolution, "these colonies are and of right ought to be free and independent states."  Two days later, they passed the Declaration of Independence.',
 'johna.jpg',
 'Adams first rose to prominence as an opponent of the Stamp Act of 1765. In that year, he drafted the instructions which were sent by the inhabitants of Braintree to its representatives in the Massachusetts legislature, and which served as a model for other towns to draw up instructions to their representatives. In August 1765, he anonymously contributed four notable articles to the Boston Gazette (republished in The London Chronicle in 1768 as True Sentiments of America and also known as A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law).  In the letter he suggested that there was a connection between the Protestant ideas that Adams\' Puritan ancestors brought to New England and the ideas that suggested they resist the Stamp Act.  In the former he explained that the opposition of the colonies to the Stamp Act was because the Stamp Act deprived the American colonists of two basic rights guaranteed to all Englishmen, and which all free men deserved: rights to be taxed only by consent and to be tried only by a jury of one\'s peers.  The "Braintree Instructions" were a succinct and forthright defense of colonial rights and liberties, while the Dissertation was an essay in political education.',
 'In December 1765, he delivered a speech before the governor and council in which he pronounced the Stamp Act invalid on the ground that Massachusetts, being without representation in Parliament, had not assented to it.  Ferling (1992) pp 53-63',
 'In 1770, a street confrontation resulted in British soldiers killing four civilians in what became known as the Boston Massacre. The soldiers involved, who were arrested on criminal charges, had trouble finding legal counsel.  Finally, they asked Adams to defend them.  Although he feared it would hurt his reputation, he agreed. One of the soldiers, Captain Thomas Preston gave Adams a symbolic "single guinea" as a retaining fee, Chinard, John Adams, 58-60  the only fee he received in the case. Or, as stated in the biography of John Adams by David McCullough, Adams received nothing more than a retainer of eighteen guineas. McCullough, John Adams, pg. 66',
 'Six of the soldiers were acquitted.  Two who had fired directly into the crowd were charged with murder but were convicted only of manslaughter.',
 'Despite his previous misgivings, Adams was elected to the Massachusetts General Court (the colonial legislature) in June of 1770, while still in preparation for the trial.',
 'In 1772, Massachusetts Governor Thomas Hutchinson announced that he and his judges would no longer need their salaries paid by the Massachusetts legislature, because the Crown would henceforth assume payment drawn from customs revenues. Boston radicals protested and asked Adams to explain their objections.  In "Two Replies of the Massachusetts House of Representatives to Governor Hutchinson" Adams argued that the colonists had never been under the sovereignty of Parliament. Their original charter was with the person of the king and their allegiance was only to him.  If a workable line could not be drawn between parliamentary sovereignty and the total independence of the colonies, he continued, the colonies would have no other choice but to choose independence.',
 "In Novanglus; or, A History of the Dispute with America, From Its Origin, in 1754, to the Present Time Adams attacked some essays by Daniel Leonard that defended Hutchinson's arguments for the absolute authority of Parliament over the colonies. In Novanglus Adams gave a point-by-point refutation of Leonard's essays, and then provided one of the most extensive and learned arguments made by the colonists against British imperial policy. It was a systematic attempt by Adams to describe the origins, nature, and jurisdiction of the unwritten British constitution. Adams used his wide knowledge of English and colonial legal history to show the provincial legislatures were fully sovereign over their own internal affairs, and that the colonies were connected to Great Britain only through the King.",
 'Massachusetts sent Adams to the first and second Continental Congresses in 1774 and from 1775 to 1778.  In 1775 he was also appointed the chief judge of the Massachusetts Superior Court.  In June 1775, with a view of promoting the union of the colonies, he nominated George Washington of Virginia as commander-in-chief of the army then assembled around Boston. His influence in Congress was great, and almost from the beginning, he sought permanent separation from Britain. On October 5, 1775, Congress created the first of a series of committees to study naval matters.',
 'On May 15, 1776 the Continental Congress, in response to escalating hostilities which had climaxed a year prior at Lexington and Concord, urged that the states begin constructing their own constitutions.',
 "John Trumbull's famous painting depicts the five-man drafting committee presenting their work to the Congress. John Adams is standing in the center of the painting.",
 'Today, the Declaration of Independence is remembered as the great revolutionary act, but Adams and most of his contemporaries saw the Declaration as a mere formality. The resolution to draft independent constitutions was, as Adams put it, "independence itself."  Ferling (1992) ch 8 p 146',
 "Over the next decade, Americans from every state gathered and deliberated on new governing documents. As radical as it was to actually write constitutions (prior convention suggested that a society's form of government needn't be codified, nor should its organic law be written down in a single document), what was equally radical was the nature of American political thought as the summer of 1776 dawned.  Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (1993)",
 'At that time several Congressmen turned to Adams for advice about framing new governments.  Adams tired of repeating the same thing, and published the pamphlet Thoughts on Government (1776), which was subsequently influential in the writing of many state constitutions. Many historians argue that Thoughts on Government should be read as an articulation of the classical theory of mixed government.  Adams contended that social classes exist in every political society, and that a good government must accept that reality. For centuries, dating back to Aristotle, a mixed regime balancing monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, or the monarch, nobles, and people was required to preserve order and liberty.  Ferling (1992) pp 155-7, 213-5',
 'Using the tools of Republicanism in the United States the patriots believed it was corrupt and nefarious aristocrats, in the English Parliament and stationed in America, who were guilty of the British assault on American liberty.  Unlike others, Adams thought that the definition of a republic had to do with its ends, rather than its means.  He wrote in Thoughts on Government, "there is no good government but what is republican. That the only valuable part of the British constitution is so; because the very definition of a republic is \'an empire of laws, and not of men.\'"  Thoughts on Government defended bicameralism, for "a single assembly is liable to all the vices, follies, and frailties of an individual." Thoughts on Government, Works of John Adams, IV:195  He also suggested that the executive should be independent, as should the judiciary.  Thoughts on Government\' was enormously influential and was referenced as an authority in every state-constitution writing hall.',
 'On June 7, 1776, Adams seconded the resolution introduced by Richard Henry Lee that "these colonies are, and of a right ought to be, free and independent states," acting as champion of these resolutions before the Congress until their adoption on July 2, 1776.  Ferling (1992) ch 8. An 1813 letter by Adams, in which he said that one-third of the people supported the revolution, refers to the French revolution in the 1790s.',
 'He was appointed on a committee with Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Robert R. Livingston and Roger Sherman, to draft a Declaration of Independence. Although that document was largely drafted by Jefferson, Adams occupied the foremost place in the debate on its adoption. He deferred the writing to Jefferson believing it would be better received having been written by him. Adams believed Jefferson wrote profoundly better than any man in Congress, and he himself was "obnoxious and disliked." Many years later, Jefferson hailed Adams as, "The Colossus of that Congress the great pillar of support to the Declaration of Independence, and its ablest advocate and champion on the floor of the House." Lipscomb & Bergh, eds. Writings of Thomas Jefferson (1903), vol 13, p xxiv  In 1777, Adams resigned his seat on the Massachusetts Superior Court to serve as the head of the Board of War and Ordinance, as well as many other important committees.  Marquis 1607-1896 ',
 'John Adams, as depicted on a two-cent American president postage stamp.',
 'Congress chose Adams to represent the fledgling union in Europe in 1777, and again in 1779. On the second trip, he was appointed as minister plenipotentiary charged with the mission of negotiating a treaty of peace and a treaty of commerce with Great Britain; he went to Europe in September 1779. The French government, however, did not approve of Adamsâ\x80\x99s appointment and subsequently, on the insistence of the French foreign minister, the Comte de Vergennes, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay and Henry Laurens were appointed to cooperate with Adams. In the event Jay, Adams and Franklin played the major part in the negotiations. Overruling Franklin, Jay and Adams decided not to consult with France; instead, they dealt directly with the British commissioners.  Ferling (1992) ch 11-12',
 'Throughout the negotiations, Adams was especially determined that the right of the United States to the fisheries along the Atlantic coast should be recognized. The American negotiators were able to secure a favorable treaty, which gave Americans ownership of all lands east of the Mississippi, except Florida, which was transferred to Spain as its reward. The treaty was signed on November 30, 1782.',
 'After these negotiations began, Adams had spent some time as the ambassador in the Netherlands, then the only other well-functioning Republic in the world.  In July 1780, he had been authorized to execute the duties previously assigned to Laurens. With the aid of the Dutch patriot leader Joan van der Capellen tot den Pol, Adams secured the recognition of the United States as an independent government at The Hague on April 19, 1782. In February 1782 the Frisian states had been the first Dutch province to recognize the United States, while France had been the first European country to grant diplomatic recognition, in 1778).  During this visit, he also negotiated a loan of five million guilders. It was floated by Nicolaas van Staphorst and Wilhelm Willink. Up till 1794 a total of eleven loans were granted in Amsterdam to the United States with a value of 29 million guilders.   In October 1782, a treaty of amity and commerce, the second such treaty between the United States and a foreign power (after the 1778 treaty with France). The house that Adams purchased during this stay in The Netherlands became the first American embassy on foreign soil anywhere in the world.',
 'In 1785, John Adams was appointed the first American minister to the Court of St. James\'s (that is, ambassador to Great Britain). When he was presented to his former sovereign, George III, the King intimated that he was aware of Adams\'s lack of confidence in the French government. Adams admitted this, stating: "I must avow to your Majesty that I have no attachment but to my own country.â\x80\x9d',
 'Queen Elizabeth II of Great Britain referred to this episode in July 7, 1976 at the White House.  She said, "John Adams, America\'s first Ambassador, said to my ancestor, King George III, that it was his desire to help with the restoration of "the old good nature and the old good humor between our peoples." That restoration has long been made, and the links of language, tradition, and personal contact have maintained it."  See   /ref>',
 'Massachusetts\'s new constitution, ratified in 1780 and written largely by Adams himself, structured its government most closely on his views of politics and society. Ronald M. Peters. The Massachusetts Constitution of 1780: A Social Compact (1978) p 13 says Adams was its "principal architect."  It was the first constitution written by a special committee and ratified by the people.  It was also the first to feature a bicameral legislature, a clear and distinct executive with a partial (2/3) veto (although he was restrained by an executive council), and a distinct judicial branch.',
 'While in London, Adams published a work entitled A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States (1787). In it he repudiated the views of Turgot and other European writers as to the viciousness of the framework of state governments. Turgot argued that countries that lacked aristocracies needn\'t have bicameral legislatures.  He thought that  republican governments feature â\x80\x9call authorities into one center, that of the nation.â\x80\x9d Turgot to Richard Price, March 22, 1778, in Works of John Adams, IV:279  In the book, Adams suggested that "the rich, the well-born and the able" should be set apart from other men in a senate--that would prevent them from dominating the lower house.  Wood (2006) has maintained that Adams had become intellectually irrelevant by the time the Federal Constitution was ratified. By then, American political thought, transformed by more than a decade of vigorous and searching debate as well as shaping experiential pressures, had abandoned the classical conception of politics which understood government as a mirror of social estates. Americans\' new conception of popular sovereignty now saw the people-at-large as the sole possessors of power in the realm.  All agents of the government enjoyed mere portions of the people\'s power and only for a limited period of time. Adams had completely missed this concept and revealed his continued attachment to the older version of politics. Wood, Revolutionary Characters: What Made the Founders Different (2006) pp 173-202; see also Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (1993).   Yet Wood overlooks Adams\' peculiar definition of the term "republic," and his support for a constitution ratified by the people. Thompson,1999  He also underplays Adams\' belief in checks and balances. "Power must be opposed to power, and interest to interest,â\x80\x9d Adams wrote.  Works of John Adams, IV:557  Adams did as much as anyone to put the idea of "checks and balances" on the intellectual map.',
 'Adams never bought a slave and declined on principle to employ slave labor. Littlefield, Daniel C. "John Jay, the Revolutionary Generation, and Slavery." New York History 2000 81(1): p 91-132. ISSN 0146-437X  Abigail Adams opposed slavery and employed free blacks in preference to her father\'s two domestic slaves. He spoke out against a bill to emancipate slaves in Massachusetts, opposed use of black soldiers in the Revolution, and tried to keep the issue out of national politics.  Ferling (1992) pp 172-3',
 'John Adams, portrait by John Trumbull.',
 'While Washington was the unanimous choice for president, Adams came in second in the electoral college and became Vice President in the presidential election of 1789. He played a minor role in the politics of the early 1790s and was reelected in 1792. Washington never asked Adams for input on policy and legal issues.  Ferling (1992) ch 15',
 'One of the best known Adams quotes concluded of the institution of the Vice Presidency: This is the most unimportant position human ever made. "Wizje Stanów Zjednoczonych w Pismach Ojców ZaÅ\x82ożycieli", Warsaw, 1976  His main task while in this office was presiding over Senate. Most Vice Presidents after him were not regarded as powerful or significant members of Presidential administrations, with some exceptions (such as Martin Van Buren, Richard Nixon, Walter Mondale, Al Gore or Dick Cheney, who were regarded as influential members of their President\'s teams).',
 'In the first year of Washington\'s administration, Adams became deeply involved in a month-long Senate controversy over what the official title of the President would be, favoring grandiose titles such as "His Majesty the President" or "His High Mightiness" over the simple "President of the United States" that won the issue. The pomposity of Adams\'s stance, and his being overweight, led to the nickname "His Rotundity."',
 "As president of the Senate, Adams cast 31 tie-breaking votesâ\x80\x94a record that only John C. Calhoun came close to tying, with 28.  Ferling (1992) p 311  His votes protected the president's sole authority over the removal of appointees and influenced the location of the national capital. On at least one occasion, he persuaded senators to vote against legislation that he opposed, and he frequently lectured the Senate on procedural and policy matters. Adams's political views and his active role in the Senate made him a natural target for critics of the Washington administration. Toward the end of his first term, as a result of a threatened resolution that would have silenced him except for procedural and policy matters, he began to exercise more restraint.  When the two political parties formed, he joined the Federalist Party, but never got on well with its dominant leader Alexander Hamilton. Because of Adams's seniority and the need for a northern president, he was elected as the Federalist  nominee for president in 1796, over Thomas Jefferson, the leader of the opposition Democratic-Republican Party. His success was due to peace and prosperity; Washington and Hamilton had averted war with Britain by the Jay Treaty of 1795.  Ferling (1992) pp 316-32",
 'Adams\' two terms as Vice President were frustrating experiences for a man of his vigor, intellect, and vanity. He complained to his wife Abigail, "My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived."',
 "During the presidential campaign of 1796 Adams was the presidential candidate of the Federalist Party and Thomas Pinckney, the Governor of South Carolina, his running mate. The federalists wanted Adams as their presidential candidate to crush Thomas Jefferson's bid. Most federalists would have preferred Hamilton to be a candidate.  Although Hamilton and his followers supported Adams, they also held a grudge against him.  They did consider him to be the lesser of the two evils. However, they thought Adams lacked the seriousness and popularity that had caused Washington to be successful, and also feared that Adams was too vain, opinionated, unpredictable, and stubborn to follow their directions.  Adams' opponents were former Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, who was joined by Senator Aaron Burr of New York on the Democratic-Republican ticket.",
 'As was customary, Adams stayed in his home town of Quincy rather than actively campaign for the Presidency.  He wanted to stay out of what he called the silly and wicked game. His party, however, campaigned for him, while the Republicans campaigned for Jefferson.',
 'It was expected that Adams would dominate the votes in New England, while Jefferson was expected to win in the Southern states. In the end, Adams won the election by a narrow margin of 71 electoral votes to 68 for Jefferson (who became the vice president).',
 'When Adams entered office, he realized that he needed to protect Washingtonâ\x80\x99s policy of staying out of the French and British war. Because the French helped secure American independence from Britain they had greater popularity with America. After the Jay treaty with Great Britain the French became angry and began seizing American merchant ships that were trading with the British. In order for Adams to avoid war he sent a commission to negotiate an understanding with France. In case the negotiation did not work Adams urged the Congress to augment the navy and army.',
 'Presidential Dollar of John Adams',
 'As President Adams followed Washington\'s lead in making the presidency the example of republican values and stressing civic virtue, he was never implicated in any scandal. Some historians consider his worst mistake to be keeping the old cabinet, which was controlled by Hamilton, instead of installing his own people, confirming Adams\'s own admission he was a poor politician because he "was unpractised in intrigues for power."  Ferling (1992) ch 16, p 333.  Yet, there are those historians who feel that Adams retention of Washington\'s cabinet was a statesman-like step to soothe worries about an orderly succession. As Adams himself explained, "I had then no particular object of any of them."  McCullough p 471  That would soon change.',
 'Adams\'s combative spirit did not always lend itself to presidential decorum, as Adams himself admitted in his old age: "[As president] I refused to suffer in silence. I sighed, sobbed, and groaned, and sometimes screeched and screamed. And I must confess to my shame and sorrow that I sometimes swore." Ellis (1998) p 57',
 "Adams's four years as president (1797 1801) were marked by intense disputes over foreign policy. Britain and France were at war; Adams and the Federalists favored Britain, while Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans favored France. An undeclared naval war between the U.S. and France, called the Quasi-War, broke out in 1798. The humiliation of the XYZ Affair, in which the French demanded huge bribes before any discussions could begin, led to serious threats of full-scale war with France and embarrassed the Jeffersonians, who were friends to France. The Federalists built up the army under George Washington and Alexander Hamilton, built warships, such as the USS Constitution, and raised taxes. They cracked down on political immigrants and domestic opponents with the Alien and Sedition Acts, which were signed by Adams in 1798.",
 'These Acts were composed of four separate and distinct units:',
 'These 4 acts were brought about to suppress Republican opposition. The Naturalization Act doubled the period required to naturalize the foreign born to American citizenship to 14 years. Since most immigrants voted republican they thought by initiating this act it would decrease the proportion of people who voted republican. ',
 'The Alien Friends Act and the Alien Enemies Act allowed the president to deport any foreigner that he  thought was dangerous to the country. ',
 'The Sedition Act criminalized anyone who publicly criticized the federal government. Some of the punishments included 2-5 years in prison and fines of $2,000 to $5,000. Adams had not designed or promoted any of these acts but he did sign them into law because he had no problem punishing those who abused the government.',
 'Those Acts, and the high-profile prosecution of a number of newspaper editors and one Congressman by the Federalists, became highly controversial. Some historians have noted that the Alien and Sedition Acts were relatively rarely enforced, as only 10 convictions under the Sedition Act have been identified and as Adams never signed a deportation order, and that the furor over the Alien and Sedition Acts was mainly stirred up by the Democratic-Republicans. However, other historians emphasize that the Acts were highly controversial from the outset, resulted in many aliens leaving the country voluntarily, and created an atmosphere where opposing the Federalists, even on the floor of Congress, could and did result in prosecution. The election of 1800 became a bitter and volatile battle, with each side expressing extraordinary fear of the other party and its policies.  Ferling (1992) ch 17',
 "The deep division in the Federalist party came on the army issue. Adams was forced to name Washington as commander of the new army, and Washington demanded that Hamilton be given the second position. Adams reluctantly gave in. Major General Hamilton virtually took control of the War department. The rift between Adams and the High Federalists (as Adams's opponents were called) grew wider. The High Federalists refused to consult Adams over the key legislation of 1798; they changed the defense measures which he had called for, demanded that Hamilton control the army, and refused to recognize the necessity of giving key Democratic-Republicans (like Aaron Burr) senior positions in the army (which Adams wanted to do in order to gain some Democratic-Republican support). By building a large standing army the High Federalists raised popular alarms and played into the hands of the Democratic-Republicans. They also alienated Adams and his large personal following. They shortsightedly viewed the Federalist party as their own tool and ignored the need to pull together the entire nation in the face of war with France. Kurtz (1967) yyoaoaoaschwing! p 331",
 'For long stretches, Adams withdrew to his home in Massachusetts. In February 1799, Adams stunned the country by sending diplomat William Vans Murray on a peace mission to France. Napoleon, realizing the animosity of the United States was doing no good, signaled his readiness for friendly relations. The Treaty of Alliance of 1778 was superseded and the United States could now be free of foreign entanglements, as Washington advised in his own Farewell Letter. Adams avoided war, but deeply split his own party in the process. He brought in John Marshall as Secretary of State and demobilized the emergency army.  Ferling (1992) ch 18',
 'The death of Washington, in 1799, weakened the Federalists, as they lost the one man who symbolized and united the party.  In the presidential election of 1800, Adams ran and lost the electoral vote narrowly. Among the causes of his defeat was distrust of him by "High Federalists" led by Hamilton, the popular disapproval of the Alien and Sedition Acts, the popularity of his opponent, Thomas Jefferson, and the effective politicking of Aaron Burr in New York State, where the legislature (which selected the electoral college) shifted from Federalist to Republican on the basis of a few wards in New York City controlled by Burr\'s machine.  Ferling (1992) ch 19; Ferling (2004)',
 "In the election of 1800 John Adams and his running mate, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney went against the Republican duo of Jefferson and Burr. Hamilton tried his hardest to sabotage Adams campaign in hopes of boosting Pinckney's chances of winning the presidency. In the end, Adams lost narrowly to Jefferson by 65 to 73 electoral votes.",
 'As his term was expiring, Adams appointed a series of judges, called the "Midnight Judges" because most of them were formally appointed days before the presidential term expired. Most of the judges were eventually unseated when the Jeffersonians abolished their offices. But John Marshall remained, and his long tenure as Chief Justice of the United States represents the most lasting influence of the Federalists, as Marshall refashioned the Constitution into a nationalizing force and established the Judicial Branch as the equal of the Executive and Legislative branches. Ferling (1992) p 409',
 'Adams appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:',
 'Portrait of an elderly John Adams by Gilbert Stuart (1823).',
 "Following his 1800 defeat, Adams retired into private life. Depressed when he left office, he did not attend Jefferson's inauguration.  He went back to farming in the Quincy area.",
 'In 1812, Adams reconciled with Jefferson. Their mutual friend Benjamin Rush, who had been corresponding with both, encouraged Adams to reach out to Jefferson. Adams sent a brief note to Jefferson, which resulted in a resumption of their friendship, and initiated a correspondence which lasted the rest of their lives. Their letters are rich in insight into both the period and the minds of the two Presidents and revolutionary leaders. Their correspondence lasted fourteen years, and consisted of 158 letters.  Cappon (1988)   It was in these years that they two men discussed "natural aristocracy."  Jefferson said that "â\x80\x9cThe natural aristocracy I consider as the most precious gift of nature for the instruction, the trusts, and government of society.  And indeed it would have been inconsistent in creation to have formed man for the social state, and not to have provided virtue and wisdom enough to manage the concerns of society. May we not even say that the form of government is best which provides most effectually for a pure selection of these natural aristoi into the offices of government?" Cappon, ed., 387  Adams wondered if it ever would be so clear who these people were, "Your distinction between natural and artificial aristocracy does not appear to me well founded.  Birth and wealth are conferred on some men as imperiously by nature, as genius, strength, or beauty. . . . When aristocracies, are established by human laws and honour wealth and power are made hereditary by municipal laws and political institutions, then I acknowledge artificial aristocracy to commence."  Cappon, ed. 400   It would always be true, Adams argued, that fate would bestow influence on some men for reasons other than true wisdom and virtue.  That being the way of nature, he thought such "talents" were natural.  A good government, therefore, had to account for that reality.',
 'Sixteen months before his death, his son, John Quincy Adams, became the sixth President of the United States (1825 1829), the only son of a former President to hold the office until George W. Bush in 2001.',
 'His daughter Abigail ("Nabby") was married to Congressman William Stephens Smith and died of cancer in 1816. His son Charles died as an alcoholic in 1800. His son Thomas and his family lived with Adams and Louisa Smith (Abigail\'s niece by her brother William) to the end of Adams\'s life.  Ferling (1992) ch 20',
 'Tombs of Presidents John Adams (distance) and John Quincy Adams (foreground) and their wives, in a family crypt beneath the United First Parish Church. ',
 'On July 4, 1826, the 50th anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, Adams died at his home in Quincy. His last words are often quoted as "Thomas Jefferson survives." Only the words "Thomas Jefferson" were clearly intelligible among his last, however.  Jefferson Still Survives. Retrieved on 2006-12-26.  Adams was unaware that Jefferson, his great political rival â\x80\x94 and later friend and correspondent â\x80\x94 had died a few hours earlier on that same day.United First Parish Church The fact that Adams and Jefferson, both of whom had been so instrumental in creating the Declaration of Independence, died on the fiftieth anniversary of the date of its publication, is one of the more remarkable coincidences in history.',
 "His crypt lies at United First Parish Church (also known as the Church of the Presidents) in Quincy.  Until his record was broken by Ronald Reagan in 2001, he was the nation's longest-living President (90 years, 247 days) maintaining that record for 175 years.  The record is currently held by former President Gerald Ford, who served less than one term, and who died December 26, 2006 at 93 years, 165 days.",
 'John Adams remains the longest-lived person ever elected to both of the highest offices in the United States.',
 'Adams was raised a Congregationalist, becoming a Unitarian at a time when most of the Congregational churches around Boston were turning to Unitarianism.  Everett (1966) argues that Adams was not a deist, but he used deistic terms in his speeches and writing. He believed in the essential goodness of the creation, but did not believe in the divinity of Christ or that God intervened in the affairs of individuals. Although not anti-clerical, he advocated the separation of church and state. He also believed that regular church service was beneficial to man\'s moral sense. Everett concludes that "Adams strove for a religion based on a common sense sort of reasonableness" and maintained that religion must change and evolve toward perfection. Robert B. Everett, "The Mature Religious Thought of John Adams," Proceedings of the South Carolina Historical Association (1966), p 49-57; [ISSN 0361-6207].',
 'Adams often railed against what he saw as overclaiming of authority by the Catholic church. See  TeachingAmericanHistory.org: " A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law", John Adams, 1765',
 'In 1796, Adams denounced the deism of political opponent Thomas Paine, saying, "The Christian religion is, above all the religions that ever prevailed or existed in ancient or modern times, the religion of wisdom, virtue, equity and humanity, let the Blackguard Paine say what he will." The Works of John Adams (1854), vol III, p 421, diary entry for July 26, 1796.',
 'The Unitarian Universalist Historical Society sheds some light on Adamsâ\x80\x99s religious beliefs.    They point out that Adams was clearly no atheist by quoting from his letter to Benjamin Rush, an early promoter of Universalist thought, â\x80\x9cI have attended public worship in all countries and with all sects and believe them all much better than no religion, though I have not thought myself obliged to believe all I heard.â\x80\x9d The Society also relates how Rush reconciled Adams to his former friend Thomas Jefferson in 1812, after many bitter political battles. This resulted in correspondence between Adams and Jefferson about many topics, including philosophy and religion.  In one of these communications, Adams told Jefferson, "The Ten Commandments and the Sermon on the Mount contain my religion." In another letter, Adams reveals his sincere devotion to God, â\x80\x9cMy Adoration of the Author of the Universe is too profound and too sincere. The Love of God and his Creation; delight, Joy, Tryumph, Exaltation in my own existence, tho\' but an Atom, a molecule Organique, in the Universe, are my religion.â\x80\x9d He continues by revealing his Universalist sympathies, rejection of orthodox Christian dogma, and his personal belief that he was a true Christian for not accepting such dogma, â\x80\x9cHowl, Snarl, bite, Ye Calvinistick! Ye Athanasian Divines, if You will. Ye will say, I am no Christian: I say Ye are no Christians: and there the Account is ballanced. Yet I believe all the honest men among you, are Christians in my Sense of the Word." The Society also demonstrates that Adams rejected orthodox Christian doctrines of the trinity, predestination, yet equated human understanding and the human conscience to â\x80\x9ccelestial communicationâ\x80\x9d or personal revelation from God. It is also shown that Adams held a strong conviction in life after death or otherwise, as he explained, â\x80\x9cyou might be ashamed of your Maker.â\x80\x9d',
 '* Brown, Ralph A. The Presidency of John Adams. (1988). Political narrative.',
 '* Ellis, Joseph J. Passionate Sage: The Character and Legacy of John Adams (1993), interpretative essay by Pulitzer prize winning scholar.',
 '* Ferling, John. Adams vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800. (2004), narrative history of the election .',
 '* Knollenberg, Bernard. Growth of the American Revolution: 1766-1775,(2003).  Online edition.',
 '* Kurtz, Stephen G. The Presidency of John Adams: The Collapse of Federalism, 1795-1800 (1957). Detailed political narrative.',
 "* McCullough, David. John Adams. (2002). Best-selling popular biography, stressing Adams's character and his marriage with Abigail over his ideas and constitutional thoughts. Winner of the 2002 Pulitzer Prize in Biography.",
 '* Miller, John C. The Federalist Era: 1789-1801. (1960). Thorough survey of politics in decade.',
 '* Ryerson, Richard Alan, ed. John Adams and the Founding of the Republic (2001). Essays by scholars:  "John Adams and the Massachusetts Provincial Elite," by William Pencak; "Before Fame: Young John Adams and Thomas Jefferson," by John Ferling; "John Adams and the \'Bolder Plan,\'" by Gregg L. Lint; "In the Shadow of Washington: John Adams as Vice President," by Jack D. Warren; "The Presidential Election of 1796," by Joanne B. Freeman; "The Disenchantment of a Radical Whig: John Adams Reckons with Free Speech," by Richard D. Brown; "\'Splendid Misery\': Abigail Adams as First Lady," by Edith B. Gelles; "John Adams and the Science of Politics," by C. Bradley Thompson; and "Presidents as Historians: John Adams and Thomas Jefferson," by Herbert Sloan.',
 '* Sharp, James. American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis. (1995), detailed political narrative of 1790s.',
 "* Thompson, C. Bradley. John Adams and the Spirit of Liberty. (1998). Analysis of Adams's political thought; insists Adams was the greatest political thinker among the Founding Generation and anticipated many of the ideas in The Federalist.",
 '* Butterfield, L. H. et al., eds., The Adams Papers (1961- ). Multivolume letterpress edition of all letters to and from major members of the Adams family, plus their diaries; still incomplete .',
 '* Cappon, Lester J. ed. The Adams-Jefferson Letters: The Complete Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson and Abigail and John Adams (1988).',
 "* Carey, George W., ed. The Political Writings of John Adams. (2001). Compilation of extracts from Adams's major political writings.",
 '*Brinkley, Alan, and Davis Dyer. The American Presidency. Boston: Houghton Mifflin company, 2004.',
 '*  Adams Family Papers: An electronic archive Captured December 16, 2004.',
 "* The  John Adams Library, housed at the Boston Public Library, contains Adams's personal collection of more than 3,500 volumes in eight languages, many of which are extensively annotated by Adams.",
 'Caricature of Amedeo Avogadro',
 "Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro, Count of Quaregna and Cerreto (August 9, 1776 July 9, 1856) was an Italian savant.  He is most noted for his contributions to the theory of molarity and molecular weight. As a tribute to him, the number of elementary entities (atoms, molecules, ions or other particles) in one mole of a substance, 6.02214199x10 23 , is known as Avogadro's number.",
 'Amedeo Avogadro was born in Turin August 9th 1776 to a noble ancient family of Piedmont,  Italy.',
 'He graduated in ecclesiastical law at  the early age of 20 and began to practice.',
 'Soon there after he dedicated himself to the study of physics and mathematics (then called positive philosophy), and in 1809 started teaching them at a liceo (high school) in Vercelli (where his family had some properties).',
 'In 1811, he published an article with the title Essai d\'une manière de déterminer les masses relatives des molécules élémentaires des corps, et les proportions selon lesquelles elles entrent dans ces combinaisons, which contains the famous Avogadro\'s hypothesis. The title of this famous 1811 paper can be roughly translated into English as "Essay on Determining the Relative Masses of the Elementary Molecules of Bodies".  (Note: At that time in 1811, northern Italy was actually under French rule during the era of Napoléon Bonaparte. Avogadro submitted his poem to a French journal. This paper was written in French, not in Italian.)',
 'In 1820 he became a professor of physics at the University of Turin. (Note: After the downfall of Napoléon in 1815, northern Italy was under the rule of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia and Turin was the capital of this kingdom.)',
 'He was active in the political revolutionary movements of 1821 against the king of Sardinia, and as a result, was removed from his chair in 1823 (or, as officially declared, the university was "very glad to allow this interesting scientist to take a rest from heavy teaching duties, in order to be able to give a better attention to his researches") .',
 "However over time, Avogadro's political isolation became less, as revolutionary ideas received increasing attention from Savoy kings, until in 1848 when Charles Albert granted a modern Constitution (Statuto Albertino). Well before this, following the increasing attention to his works, Avogadro had been recalled to Turin university in 1833, where he taught for another twenty years.",
 "Very little is known about Avogadro's private life and political activity although he seems to have led a sober and religious life. He married Felicita Mazzé and had six children.",
 "Several historical studies confirm that he sponsored and helped some Sardinian plotters who were organising a revolution in that island, stopped at the very last moment by the concession of Charles Albert's statute. Some doubts however remain, considering the very slight evidence.",
 'Avogadro held public posts in statistics, meteorology, and weights and measures (he introduced decimal metric system in Piedmont) and was a member of the Royal Superior Council on Public Instruction.',
 "In honour of Avogadro's contributions to the theory of molarity and molecular weights, the number of molecules in one mole was renamed Avogadro's number, N A . It is approximately 6.0221415   10 23 .",
 "Loschmidt first calculated the value of Avogadro's number, now called Avogadro's constant, which is still sometimes referred to as the Loschmidt number in German-language countries (Loschmidt constant now has another meaning).  Avogadro's number is commonly used to compute the results of chemical reactions. It allows chemists to determine the exact amounts of substances produced in a given reaction.",
 "During his stay in Vercelli he wrote a concise note (memoria) in which he declared the hypothesis of what we now call Avogadro's law: ",
 "This memoria he sent to De Lamétherie's Journal de Physique, de Chimie et d'Histoire naturelle and it was published in the edition of July 14, 1811 with the title Essai d'une manière de déterminer les masses relatives des molecules élémentaires des corps, et les proportions selon lesquelles elles entrent dans ces combinaisons  .",
 "Avogadro's Law implies that the relationship occurring between the weights of same volumes of different gases (at the same temperature and pressure) corresponds to the relationship between respective molecular weights. Hence, relative molecular masses can be calculated from the masses of gas samples.",
 'Avogadro developed this hypothesis after Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac had published in 1808 his law on volumes (and combining gases). The greatest difficulty Avogadro had to resolve was the huge confusion at that time regarding atoms and molecules   one of the most important contributions of Avogadro\'s work was clearly distinguishing one from the other, admitting that simple particles too could be composed of molecules, and that these are composed of atoms. For instance, John Dalton did not consider this possibility. Avogadro did not actually use the word "atom" as the words "atom" and "molecule" were used almost without difference. He considered that there were three kinds of "molecules," including an "elementary molecule" (our "atom"). Also, a keener attention was given to the definition of mass, as distinguished from weight.',
 "In 1814 he published Mémoire sur les masses relatives des molécules des corps simples, ou densités présumées de leur gaz, et sur la constitution de quelques-uns de leur composés, pour servir de suite à l'Essai sur le même sujet, publié dans le Journal de Physique, juillet 1811 (), about gas densities.",
 'In 1821 he published another memoria, Nouvelles considérations sur la théorie des proportions déterminées dans les combinaisons, et sur la détermination des masses des molécules des corps and little after Mémoire sur la manière de ramener les composès organiques aux lois ordinaires des proportions déterminées.',
 "In 1841 he completed and published his work in Fisica dei corpi ponderabili, ossia Trattato della costituzione materiale de' corpi, 4 volumes.",
 "The scientific community did not reserve great attention to his theory, so Avogadro's hypothesis was not immediately accepted when announced. André-Marie Ampère too was able three years later to achieve the same result by another method (in his Sur la détermination des proportions dans lesquelles les corps se combinent d'après le nombre et la disposition respective des molécules dont leurs particules intégrantes sont composées), but the same indifferent regard was given to his theories as well.",
 "Only with studies by Gerhardt, Laurent and Williamson on organic chemistry, was it possible to demonstrate that Avogadro's law was indispensable to explain why same quantities of molecules, brought to a vapour state, have the same volume.",
 "Unfortunately, in the performance of related experiments, some inorganic substances showed exceptions to the law. The matter was finally concluded by Stanislao Cannizzaro, as announced at Karlsruhe Congress (1860, four years after Avogadro's death), where he explained that these exceptions happened because of molecular dissociations which occurred at certain temperatures, and that Avogadro's law could determine not only molar masses, but as a consequence, atomic masses too.",
 "In 1911, a historic meeting took place in Turin to commemorate the hundredth anniversary of the publication of Avogadro's classic 1811 memoir. King Victor Emmanuel III was there to pay homage to Avogadro. Thus Avogadro's great contribution to chemistry was recognised and he is recognised as a great Italian chemist. (Note: In 1911, Victor Emmanuel III was the King of a unified Italy with Rome instead or Turin as its capital. The unification of Italy did not happen during the life time of Avogadro. In fact, Avogadro's famous 1811 paper was written in French.)",
 "Clausius, by his kinetic theory on gases, was able to give another confirmation of Avogadro's law. Not long after, in his researches regarding dilute solutions (and the consequent discovery of analogies between the behaviour of solutions and gases), J. H. van 't Hoff added his final consensus for the triumph of the Italian scientist, who since then has been considered the founder of the atomic-molecular theory.",
 '* Morselli, Mario. (1984). Amedeo Avogadro, a scientific biography. Kluwer. ISBN 9027716242.',
 "The Republic of Indonesia ( ) ( ), is a nation in Southeast Asia. Comprising 17,508 islands, it is the world's largest archipelagic state. With a population of over 234 million people, it is the world's fourth most populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority nation, although officially it is not an Islamic state. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected parliament and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, the Philippines, Australia, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.",
 "The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the seventh century, when the Srivijaya Kingdom formed trade links with China. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Under Indian influence, Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished from the early centuries CE. Muslim traders brought Islam, and European powers fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Exploration. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change.",
 'Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of distinct ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups. The Javanese are the largest and politically dominant ethnic group. As a unitary state and a nation, Indonesia has developed a shared identity defined by a national language, a majority Muslim population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesia\'s national motto, "Bhinneka tunggal ika" ("Unity in Diversity" lit. "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity that shapes the country. However, sectarian tensions and separatism have led to violent confrontations that have undermined political and economic stability. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the world\'s second highest level of biodiversity. The country is richly endowed with natural resources, yet poverty is a defining feature of contemporary Indonesia.',
 'The name Indonesia derives from the Latin Indus, meaning "India", and the Greek nesos, meaning "island".    The name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia.      In 1850, George Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians and, his preference, Malayunesians for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago".    In the same publication, a student of Earl\'s, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago.  ;    However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia. Instead, they used the terms Malay Archipelago (Maleische Archipel); the Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularly Indië; the East (de Oost); and even Insulinde. (This term was introduced in 1860 in the influential novel Max Havelaar (1859), written by Multatuli, critical of Dutch colonialism).',
 'From 1900, the name Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and Indonesian nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.    Adolf Bastian, of the University of Berlin, popularized the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayichen Archipels, 1884â\x80\x931894. The first Indonesian scholar to use the name was Suwardi Suryaningrat (Ki Hajar Dewantara), when he established a press bureau in the Netherlands with the name Indonesisch Pers-bureau in 1913.',
 'As early as the first century CE Indonesian vessels made trade voyages as far as Africa. Picture: a ship carved on Borobudur, circa 800 CE.',
 'Fossilized remains of Homo erectus, popularly known as the "Java Man", suggest the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago.  ',
 'cited in  ;  ',
 'cited in',
 ' ;',
 'cited in   ',
 'Austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE, and confined the native Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions as they expanded. Taylor (2003), pages 5â\x80\x937  Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the eighth century BCE,',
 "allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE. Indonesia's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade. For example, trade links with both Indian kingdoms and China were established several centuries BCE.    Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history. Taylor (2003), pages 3, 9, 10â\x80\x9311, 13, 14â\x80\x9315, 18â\x80\x9320, 22â\x80\x9323; Vickers (2005), pages 18â\x80\x9320, 60, 133â\x80\x93134",
 "The nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia's Banda Islands. Once one of the world's most valuable commodities, it drew the first European colonial powers to Indonesia.",
 'From the seventh century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it. Taylor (2003), pages 22â\x80\x9326; Ricklefs (1991), page 3  Between the eighth and 10th centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra\'s Borobudur and Mataram\'s Prambanan. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada, its influence stretched over much of Indonesia; this period is often referred to as a "Golden Age" in Indonesian history.',
 'Although Muslim traders first traveled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the earliest evidence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra. Ricklefs (1991), pages 3 to 14  Other Indonesia areas gradually adopted Islam which became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java. Ricklefs (1991), pages 12â\x80\x9314  The first Europeans arrived in Indonesia in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolize the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku.     Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalized colony. Ricklefs (1991), page 24',
 "For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over these territories was tenuous; only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries. Dutch troops were constantly engaged in quelling rebellions both on and off Java. The influence of local leaders such as Prince Diponegoro in central Java, Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra and Pattimura in Maluku, and a bloody thirty-year war in Aceh weakened the Dutch and tied up the colonial military forces.(Schwartz 1999, pages 3â\x80\x934) Despite major internal political, social and sectarian divisions during the National Revolution, Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in their fight for independence.  The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation during WWII ended Dutch rule,  ;    and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement. Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, Sukarno, an influential nationalist leader, declared independence and was appointed president.  ;  ;  ; Reid (1973), page 30  The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule, and a bitter armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognized Indonesian independence.  ;",
 "Sukarno, Indonesia's founding president",
 'Sukarno moved from democracy towards authoritarianism, and maintained his power base by balancing the opposing forces of the Military, Islam, and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI). Ricklefs (1991), pages 237 - 280  An attempted coup on September 30 1965 was countered by the army, who led a  violent anti-communist purge, during which the PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed. Friend (2003), pages 107â\x80\x93109;  ; Ricklefs (1991), pages 280â\x80\x93283, 284, 287â\x80\x93290  Between 500,000 and one million people were killed.  ;    The head of the military, General Suharto, out-maneuvered the politically weakened Sukarno, and was formally appointed president in March 1968. His New Order administration    was supported by the US government, US National Archives, RG 59 Records of Department of State; cable no. 868, ref: Embtel 852, Oct 5 1965. ; Adrian Vickers, A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press, p. 163; 2005; David Slater, Geopolitics and the Post-Colonial: Rethinking North-South Relations, London: Blackwell, p. 70  and encouraged foreign investment in Indonesia, which was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth  ;  ;',
 'In 1997 and 1998, however, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the East Asian Financial Crisis.    This increased popular discontent with the New Order  ',
 '  and led to popular protests. Suharto resigned on May 21 1998. ',
 '   In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, after a twenty-five-year occupation, which was marked by international condemnation of repression and human rights abuses.  ;  ',
 "  The Reformasi era following Suharto's resignation, has led to a strengthening of democratic processes, including a regional autonomy program, and the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, and terrorism have slowed progress. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problems in some areas.    A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005.",
 'Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. As a unitary state, power is concentrated in the national government. Following the resignation of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesian political and governmental structures have undergone major reforms. Four amendments to the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia In 1999, 2000, 2001 and 2002  have revamped the executive, judicial, and legislative branches.    The president of Indonesia is the head of state, commander-in-chief of the Indonesian Armed Forces, and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of ministers, who are not required to be elected members of the legislature. The 2004 presidential election was the first in which the people directly elected the president and vice president.    The president serves a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms. _ (2002), The fourth Amendment of 1945 Indonesia Constitution, Chapter III â\x80\x93 The Executive Power, Art. 7.',
 "A session of the People's Representative Council in Jakarta",
 "The highest representative body at national level is the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating the president, and formalizing broad outlines of state policy. It has the power to impeach the president.      The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council (DPR), with 550 members, and the Regional Representatives Council (DPD), with 168 members. The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch; party-aligned members are elected for five-year terms by proportional representation.  Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased the DPR's role in national governance. Reforms include total control of statutes production without executive branch interventions; all members are now elected (reserved seats for military representatives have now been removed); and the introduction of fundamental rights exclusive to the DPR. (see Harijanti and Lindsey 2006)  The DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management. Based on the 2001 constitution amendment, the DPD comprises four popularly elected non-partisan members from each of the thirty-three provinces for national political representation.",
 "Most civil disputes appear before a State Court; appeals are heard before the High Court. The Supreme Court is the country's highest court, and hears final cassation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Commercial Court, which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; a State Administrative Court to hear administrative law cases against the government; a Constitutional Court to hear disputes concerning legality of law, general elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority of state institutions; and a Religious Court to deal with specific religious cases.",
 'In contrast to Sukarno\'s antipathy to western powers and hostility to Malaysia, Indonesia\'s foreign relations approach since the Suharto "New Order" has been one of international cooperation and accommodation, to gain external support for Indonesia\'s political stability and economic development.    Indonesia maintains close relationships with its neighbors in Asia, and is a founding member of ASEAN and the East Asia Summit.    The nation restored relations with the People\'s Republic of China in 1990 following a freeze in place since anti-communist purges early in the Suharto era.  Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia temporarily withdrew from the UN on January 20 1965 in response to the fact that Malaysia was elected as a non-permanent member of the Security Council. It announced its intention to "resume full cooperation with the United Nations and to resume participation in its activities" on September 19 1966, and was invited to re-join the UN on September 28 1966.  and was a founder of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC).  Indonesia is signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, and a member of OPEC, the Cairns Group and the WTO. Indonesia has received humanitarian and development aid since 1966, in particular from the United States, western Europe, Australia, and Japan.',
 'National flags at the site of the 2002 terrorist bombing in Kuta, Bali',
 "The Indonesian Government has worked with other countries to apprehend and prosecute perpetrators of major bombings linked to militant Islamism and Al-Qaeda.  ;    The deadliest killed 202 people (including 164 international tourists) in the Bali resort town of Kuta in 2002.    The attacks, and subsequent travel warnings issued by other countries, have severely damaged Indonesia's tourism industry and foreign investment prospects.",
 "Indonesia's 300,000-member armed forces (TNI) include the Army (TNI-AD), Navy (TNI-AL, which includes marines), and Air Force (TNI-AU).    The army has about 233,000 active-duty personnel. Defense spending in the national budget was 4% of GDP in 2006, and is controversially supplemented by revenue from military commercial interests and foundations.    In the post-Suharto period since 1998, formal TNI representation in parliament has been removed; though curtailed, its political influence remains extensive. Friend (2003), pages 473â\x80\x93475, 484  Separatist movements in the provinces of Aceh and Papua have led to armed conflict, and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides. Friend (2003), pages 270â\x80\x93273, 477â\x80\x93480;    Following a sporadic thirty year guerrilla war between the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) and the Indonesian military, a ceasefire agreement was reached in 2005.  ;    In Papua, there has been a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported decline in the levels of violence and human rights abuses, since the presidency of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.  ;",
 'Provinces of Indonesia',
 "Administratively, Indonesia consists of 33 provinces, five of which have special status. Each province has its own political legislature and governor. The provinces are subdivided into regencies (kabupaten) and (kota), which are further subdivided into subdistricts (kecamatan), and again into village groupings (either desa or kelurahan). Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, the regencies and cities have become the key administrative units, responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life, and handles matters of a village or neighborhood through an elected lurah or kepala desa (village chief).",
 "Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua, and West Papua provinces have greater legislative privileges and a higher degree of autonomy from the central government than the other provinces. The Acehnese government, for example, has the right to create an independent legal system; in 2003, it instituted a form of Sharia (Islamic law).    Yogyakarta was granted the status of Special Region in recognition of its pivotal role in supporting Indonesian Republicans during the Indonesian Revolution. The positions of governor and its vice governor are prioritized for descendants of the Sultan of Yogyakarta and Paku Alam, respectively, much like a sultanate. (Elucidation on the Indonesia Law No. 22/1999 Regarding Regional Governance. People's Representative Council (1999). Chapter XIV Other Provisions, Art. 122;   (translated version). The President of Republic of Indonesia (1974). Chapter VII Transitional Provisions, Art. 91  Papua, formerly known as Irian Jaya, was granted special autonomy status in 2001. As part of the autonomy package was the introduction of the Papuan People's Council tasked with arbitration and speaking on behalf of Papuan tribal customs, however, the implementation of the autonomy measures has been criticized as half-hearted and incomplete.  ;    Jakarta is the country's special capital region.",
 ';Indonesian provinces and their capitals',
 ' (Indonesian name in brackets where different from English)',
 'â\x80\xa0  indicates provinces with Special Status',
 'Sumatra',
 'Java',
 'Lesser Sunda Islands',
 'Kalimantan',
 'Sulawesi',
 'Maluku islands',
 'Papua',
 'Map of Indonesia',
 "Indonesia consists of 17,508 islands, about 6,000 of which are inhabited.  ;    These are scattered over both sides of the equator. The five largest islands are Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan (the Indonesian part of Borneo), New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea), and Sulawesi. Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on the island of Borneo, Sebatik, Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, and East Timor on the island of Timor.  Indonesia also shares borders with Singapore, Malaysia, and the Philippines to the north and Australia to the south across narrow straits of water.  The capital, Jakarta, is on Java and is the nation's largest city, followed by Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, and Semarang.",
 "At 1,919,440 square kilometers (741,050 sq mi), Indonesia is the world's 16th-largest country in terms of land area.    Its average population density is 134 people per square kilometer (347 per sq mi), 79th in the world,    although Java, the world's most populous island,    has a population density of 940 people per square kilometer (2,435 per sq mi). At 4,884 meters (16,024 ft), Puncak Jaya in Papua is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra its largest lake, with an area of 1,145 square kilometers (442 sq mi). The country's largest rivers are in Kalimantan, and include the Mahakam and Barito; such rivers are communication and transport links between the island's river settlements.",
 "Mount Semeru and Mount Bromo in East Java. Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity is among the world's highest.",
 "Indonesia's location on the edges of the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian tectonic plates, makes it the site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. Indonesia has at least 150 active volcanoes,    including Krakatoa and Tambora, both famous for their devastating eruptions in the 19th century. The eruption of the Toba supervolcano, approximately 70,000 years ago, was one of the largest eruptions ever, and a global catastrophe. Recent disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 tsunami that killed an estimated 167,736 in northern Sumatra,    and the Yogyakarta earthquake in 2006. However, volcanic ash is a major contributor to the high agricultural fertility that has historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali.",
 'Lying along the equator, Indonesia has a tropical climate, with two distinct monsoonal wet and dry seasons. Average annual rainfall in the lowlands varies from 1,780â\x80\x933,175 millimeters (70â\x80\x93125 in), and up to 6,100 millimeters (240 in) in mountainous regions. Mountainous areas particularly in the west coast of Sumatra, West Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua receive the highest rainfall. Humidity is generally high, averaging about 80%. Temperatures vary little throughout the year; the average daily temperature range of Jakarta is 26â\x80\x9330 °C (79â\x80\x9386 °F).',
 'The critically endangered Sumatran Orangutan, a great ape endemic to Indonesia',
 "Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography, support the world's second highest level of biodiversity (after Brazil),    and its flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian and Australasian species.    Once linked to the Asian mainland, the islands of the Sunda Shelf (Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Borneo, and Bali) have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the tiger, rhinoceros, orangutan, elephant, and leopard, were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically.",
 'Forests cover approximately 60% of the country.    In Sumatra and Kalimantan, these are predominantly of Asian species. However, the forests of the smaller, and more densely populated Java, have largely been removed for human habitation and agriculture. Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku having been long separated from the continental landmasses have developed their own unique flora and fauna.  ;    Papua was part of the Australian landmass, and is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species.',
 "Indonesia's 80,000 kilometers (50,000 mi) of coastline are surrounded by tropical seas that contribute to the country's high level of biodiversity. Indonesia has a range of sea and coastal ecosystems, including beaches, sand dunes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, sea grass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems.",
 "The British naturalist, Alfred Wallace, described a dividing line between the distribution of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species.    Known as the Wallace Line, it runs roughly north-south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok Strait, between Lombok and Bali. West of the line the flora and fauna are more Asian; moving east from Lombok, they are increasingly Australian. In his 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago, Wallace described numerous species unique to the surrounding area,  ,  which is now termed Wallacea.",
 "Indonesia's high population and rapid industrialization present serious environmental issues, which are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.    Issues include large-scale deforestation (much of it illegal) and related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; and environmental problems associated with rapid urbanization and economic development, including air pollution, traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services.  Habitat destruction threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species, including 140 species of mammals identified by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as threatened, and 15 identified as critically endangered, including the Sumatran Orangutan.",
 "Using water buffalo to plough rice fields in Java. Agriculture has been the country's largest employer for centuries.",
 "Indonesia's estimated Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for 2007 is US$408 billion (US$1,038 bn PPP).    In 2007, estimated nominal per capita GDP is US$1,812, and per capita GDP PPP was US$4,616 (International Dollars).    The services sector is the economy's largest and accounts for 45.3% of GDP (2005). This is followed by industry (40.7%) and agriculture (14.0%).    However, agriculture employs more people than other sectors, accounting for 44.3% of the 95 million-strong workforce. This is followed by the services sector (36.9%) and industry (18.8%).    Major industries include petroleum and natural gas, textiles, apparel, and mining. Major agricultural products include palm oil, rice, tea, coffee, spices, and rubber.",
 "Indonesia's main export markets are Japan (22.3% of Indonesian exports in 2005), the United States (13.9%), China (9.1%), and Singapore (8.9%). The major suppliers of imports to Indonesia are Japan (18.0%), China (16.1%), and Singapore (12.8%). In 2005, Indonesia ran a trade surplus with export revenues of US$83.64 billion and import expenditure of US$62.02 billion. The country has extensive natural resources, including crude oil, natural gas, tin, copper, and gold. Indonesia's major imports include machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels, and foodstuffs.",
 'Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia and its largest commercial center',
 "In the 1960s, the economy deteriorated drastically as a result of political instability, a young and inexperienced government, and ill-disciplined economic nationalism, which resulted in severe poverty and hunger. By the time of Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the economy was in chaos with 1,000% annual inflation, shrinking export revenues, crumbling infrastructure, factories operating at minimal capacity, and negligible investment. Schwarz (1994), pages 52â\x80\x9357  Following President Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the New Order administration brought a degree of discipline to economic policy that quickly brought inflation down, stabilized the currency, rescheduled foreign debt, and attracted foreign aid and investment. Schwarz (1994), pages 52â\x80\x9357  Indonesia is Southeast Asia's only member of OPEC, and the 1970s oil price raises provided an export revenue windfall that contributed to sustained high economic growth rates. averaging over 7% from 1968 to 1981. Schwarz (1994), pages 52â\x80\x9357  Following further reforms in the late 1980s, ",
 'Following a slowing of growth in the 1980s, due to over regulation and dependence on declining oil prices, growth slowed to an average of 4.3% per annum between 1981 and 1988. A range of economic reforms were introduced in the late 1980s. Reforms included a managed devaluation of the rupiah to improve export competitiveness, and de-regulation of the financial sector (Schwarz (1994), pages 52â\x80\x9357).  foreign investment flowed into Indonesia, particularly into the rapidly developing export-orientated manufacturing sector, and from 1989 to 1997, the Indonesian economy grew by an average of over 7%. Schwarz (1994), pages 52â\x80\x9357;',
 'Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the East Asian financial crisis of 1997â\x80\x9398. Against the US dollar, the currency dropped from about Rp. 2,000 to Rp. 18,000, and the economy shrunk by 13.7%.    The rupiah has since stabilized at around Rp. 10,000, and there has been a slow but significant economic recovery. Political instability since 1998, slow economic reform, and corruption at all levels of government and business, have contributed to the patchy nature of the recovery.  ; ;  (subsequent correction)   (Transparency International, for example, ranked Indonesia 143rd out of 180 countries in its 2007 Corruption Perceptions Index).    GDP growth, however, exceeded 5% in both 2004 and 2005, and is forecast to increase further.    This growth rate, however, is not enough to make a significant impact on unemployment,    (subsequent correction);    and stagnant wages growth, and increases in fuel and rice prices have worsened poverty levels. In 2005, the Government was forced to reduce its large subsidies on fuel prices drastically as international oil prices climbed, which was a major contributor to inflation and hardship.   ',
 'As of 2006, an estimated 17.8% of the population live below the poverty line, and 49.0% of the population live on less than US$2 per day.',
 "The national population from the 2000 national census is 206 million,    and the Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau and Statistics Indonesia estimate a population of 222 million for 2006.    130 million people live on the island of Java, the world's most populous island.    Despite a fairly effective family planning program, which has been in place since the 1960s, the population is expected to grow to around 315 million in 2035, based on the current estimated annual growth rate of 1.25%.",
 'A Minangkabau woman in traditional dress',
 "Most Indonesians are descendant from Austronesian-speaking peoples, who originated from Taiwan. The other major grouping are Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia. Taylor (2003), pages 5â\x80\x937,  ;    There are around 300 distinct native ethnicities in Indonesia, and 742 different languages and dialects.  ;    The largest is the Javanese, who comprise 42% of the population, and are politically and culturally dominant.    The Sundanese, ethnic Malays, and Madurese are the largest non-Javanese groups. Small but significant populations of ethnic Chinese, Indians, Europeans and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas.  A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strongly maintained regional identities. Ricklefs (1991), page 256  Society is largely harmonious, although social, religious and ethnic tensions have triggered horrendous violence.  Domestic migration (including the official Transmigrasi program) are a cause of violence such as the massacre of hundreds of Madurese by a local Dayak community in West Kalimantan, and conflicts in Maluku, Central Sulawesi, and parts of Papua and West Papua  ;  ;  ; Kyoto University: Sulawesi Kaken Team & Center for Southeast Asian Studies    Chinese Indonesians are an influential ethnic minority comprising less than 2% of the population. Much of the country's privately-owned commerce and wealth is Chinese-controlled, Schwarz (1994), pages 53, 80â\x80\x9381; Friend (2003), pages 85â\x80\x9387, 164â\x80\x93165, 233â\x80\x93237  which has contributed to considerable resentment, and even anti-Chinese violence.  ;   The riots in Jakarta in 1998 much of which were aimed at the Chinese were, in part, expressions of this resentment. ;",
 'The official national language, Indonesian, is universally taught in schools, and is spoken by nearly every Indonesian. It is the language of business, politics, national media, education, and academia. It was originally a lingua franca for most of the region, including present-day Malaysia, and is thus closely related to Malay. Indonesian was first promoted by nationalists in the 1920s, and declared the official language on independence in 1945. Most Indonesians speak at least one of the several hundred local languages (bahasa daerah), often as their first language. Of these, Javanese is the most widely-spoken, the language of the largest ethnic group.  - The World Factbook. Retrieved on August 14, 2007.   On the other hand, Papua has 500 or more indigenous Papuan and Austronesian languages, in a region of just 2.7 million people.',
 "Medan's Masjid Raya ('Great Mosque'). Indonesia has the world's largest Muslim population.",
 "Although religious freedom is stipulated in the Indonesian constitution,    the government officially recognizes only six religions: Islam; Protestantism; Roman Catholicism; Hinduism; Buddhism; and Confucianism.    Although it is not an Islamic state, Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim-majority nation, with almost 86% of Indonesians declared Muslim according to the 2000 census.    11% of the population is Christian, of which roughly two-thirds are Protestant  2% are Hindu, and 1% Buddhist. Most Indonesian Hindus are Balinese,    and most Buddhists in modern-day Indonesia are ethnic Chinese.    Though now minority religions, Hinduism and Buddhism remain defining influences in Indonesian culture. Islam was first adopted by Indonesians in northern Sumatra in the 13th century, through the influence of traders, and became the country's dominant religion by the 16th century.    Roman Catholicism was brought to Indonesia by early Portuguese colonialists and missionaries, Ricklefs (1991), pp. 25, 26, 28 ;    and the Protestant denominations are largely a result of Dutch Calvinist and Lutheran missionary efforts during the country's colonial period. Ricklefs (1991), pp.28, 62; Vickers (2005), p.22;    A large proportion of Indonesians such as the Javanese abangan, Balinese Hindus, and Dayak Christians practice a less orthodox, syncretic form of their religion, which draws on local customs and beliefs. Magnis-Suseno, F. 1981, Javanese Ethics and World-View: The Javanese Idea of the Good Life, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta, 1997, pp.15-18, ISBN 979-605-406-X;",
 'A Wayang kulit shadow puppet performance as seen by the audience',
 "Indonesia has around 300 ethnic groups, each with cultural differences developed over centuries, and influenced by Arabic, Chinese, Malay, and European sources. Traditional Javanese and Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu culture and mythology, as do wayang kulit (shadow puppet) performances. Textiles such as batik, ikat and songket are created across Indonesia in styles that vary by region. The most dominant influences on Indonesian architecture have traditionally been Indian; however, Chinese, Arab, and European architectural influences have been significant. The most popular sports in Indonesia are badminton and football; Liga Indonesia is the country's premier football club league. Traditional sports include sepak takraw, and bull racing in Madura. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as, caci in Flores, and pasola in Sumba. Pencak Silat is an Indonesian martial art. Sports in Indonesia are generally male-orientated and spectator sports are often associated with illegal gambling.",
 'A selection of Indonesian food, including Soto Ayam (chicken noodle soup), sate kerang (shellfish kebabs), telor pindang (preserved eggs), perkedel (fritter), and es teh manis (sweet iced tea)',
 "Indonesian cuisine varies by region and is based on Chinese, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents.    Rice is the main staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chili), coconut milk, fish and chicken are fundamental ingredients. Compared to the infused flavors of Vietnamese and Thai food, flavors in Indonesia are kept relatively separate, simple and substantial.   Indonesian traditional music includes gamelan and keroncong. Dangdut is a popular contemporary genre of pop music that draws influence from Arabic, Indian, and Malay folk music. The Indonesian film industry's popularity peaked in the 1980s and dominated cinemas in Indonesia,    although it declined significantly in the early 1990s.      Between 2000 and 2005, the number of Indonesian films released each year has steadily increased.",
 "The oldest evidence of writing in Indonesia is a series of Sanskrit inscriptions dated to the 5th century CE. Important figures in modern Indonesian literature include: Dutch author Multatuli, who criticized treatment of the Indonesians under Dutch colonial rule; Sumatrans Muhammad Yamin and Hamka, who were influential pre-independence nationalist writers and politicians; Taylor (2003), pages 299â\x80\x93301  and proletarian writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesia's most famous novelist. Vickers (2005) pages 3 to 7; Friend (2003), pages 74, 180  Many of Indonesia's peoples have strongly-rooted oral traditions, which help to define and preserve their cultural identities.    Media freedom in Indonesia increased considerably after the end of President Suharto's rule, during which the now-defunct Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media, and restricted foreign media.    The TV market includes ten national commercial networks, and provincial networks that compete with public TVRI. Private radio stations carry their own news bulletins and foreign broadcasters supply programs. At a reported 18 million users in 2005,    Internet usage is limited to a minority of the population.",
 '; Government',
 '; Other',
 'Antoine Henri Becquerel (December 15, 1852 ; August 25, 1908) was a French physicist, Nobel laureate, and one of the discoverers of radioactivity. He won the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering radioactivity.',
 'Becquerel was born in Paris into a family which, including he and his son Jean, produced four generations of scientists. He studied science at the Ã\x89cole Polytechnique and engineering at the Ã\x89cole des Ponts et Chaussées. In 1890 he married Louise Désirée Lorieux.',
 "In 1892, he became the third in his family to occupy the physics chair at the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle. In 1894, he became chief engineer in the Department of Bridges and Highways.",
 'In 1896, while investigating phosphorescence in uranium salts, Becquerel accidentally discovered radioactivity. Investigating the work of Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, Becquerel wrapped a fluorescent substance, potassium uranyl sulfate, in photographic plates and black material in preparation for an experiment requiring bright sunlight. However, prior to actually performing the experiment, Becquerel found that the photographic plates were fully exposed. This discovery led Becquerel to investigate the spontaneous emission of nuclear radiation.',
 'Describing his method to the French Academy of Sciences on January 24, 1896, he said,',
 ' One wraps a Lumière photographic plate with a bromide emulsion in two sheets of very thick black paper, such that the plate does not become clouded upon being exposed to the sun for a day. One places on the sheet of paper, on the outside, a slab of the phosphorescent substance, and one exposes the whole to the sun for several hours. When one then develops the photographic plate, one recognizes that the silhouette of the phosphorescent substance appears in black on the negative. If one places between the phosphorescent substance and the paper a piece of money or a metal screen pierced with a cut-out design, one sees the image of these objects appear on the negative. â\x80¦ One must conclude from these experiments that the phosphorescent substance in question emits rays which pass through the  opaque paper and reduces silver salts.    Comptes Rendus 122, 420 (1896),  translated by Carmen Giunta. Accessed September 10, 2006.',
 'In 1903, he shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Pierre and Marie Curie "in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity".',
 'In 1908, the year of his death, Becquerel was elected Permanent Secretary of the Académie des Sciences. He died at the age of 55 in Le Croisic.',
 'The SI unit for radioactivity, the becquerel (Bq), is named after him, and there is a Becquerel crater on the Moon and a Becquerel crater on Mars.',
 'Egypt (Egyptian: Kemet; Coptic:   KÄ«mi;     ; Egyptian Arabic:  ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country in North Africa that includes the Sinai Peninsula, a land bridge to Asia. Covering an area of about  , Egypt borders Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, and the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. The northern coast borders the Mediterranean Sea and the island of Cyprus; the eastern coast borders the Red Sea.',
 "Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa. The great majority of its estimated 78 million people (2007) live near the banks of the Nile River in an area of about   where the only arable agricultural land is found. The large areas of the Sahara Desert are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban areas, with the majority spread across the densely populated centers of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.",
 "Egypt is famous for its ancient civilization and some of the world's most famous monuments, including the Giza pyramid complex and the Great Sphinx.  The southern city of Luxor contains numerous ancient artifacts, such as the Karnak Temple and the Valley of the Kings. Egypt is widely regarded as an important political and cultural nation of the Middle East.",
 'One of the ancient Egyptian names of the country, Kemet ( ), or "black land" (from kem "black"), is derived from the fertile black soils deposited by the Nile floods, distinct from the deshret, or "red land" ( ), of the desert. The name is realized as   and   in the Coptic stage of the Egyptian language, and appeared in early Greek as   ( ). Another name was   "land of the riverbank". The names of Upper and Lower Egypt were Ta-Sheme\'aw  ( ) "sedgeland" and Ta-Mehew ( ) "northland", respectively.',
 ', the Arabic and modern official name of Egypt (Egyptian Arabic:  ), is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew   ( ), literally meaning "the two straits" (a reference to the dynastic separation of upper and lower Egypt).  Biblical Hebrew E-Magazine. January, 2005  The word originally connoted "metropolis" or "civilization" and also means "country", or "frontier-land".',
 'The English name "Egypt" came via the Latin word   derived from the ancient Greek word AÃ\xadgyptos ( ). The adjective aigýpti, aigýptios was borrowed into Coptic as gyptios, kyptios, and from there into Arabic as  , back formed into  , whence English Copt. The term is derived from Late Egyptian Hikuptah "Memphis", a corruption of the earlier Egyptian name Hat-ka-Ptah ( ), meaning "home of the ka (soul) of Ptah", the name of a temple to the god Ptah at Memphis.  Strabo provided a folk etymology according to which AÃ\xadgyptos ( ) had evolved as a compound from   ( ), meaning "below the Aegean".',
 'The Nile River in Egypt',
 'The Nile has been a site of continuous human habitation since at least the Paleolithic era. Evidence of this appears in the form of artifacts and rock carvings along the Nile terraces and in the desert oases. In the 10th millennium BC, a culture of hunter-gatherers and fishers replaced a grain-grinding culture. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 8000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt,  forming the Sahara. Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralized society. Midant-Reynes, Béatrix. The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.',
 'By about 6000 BC, organized agriculture and large building construction had appeared in the Nile Valley. During the Neolithic era, several predynastic cultures developed independently in Upper and Lower Egypt. The Badarian culture and the successor Naqada series are generally regarded as precursors to Dynastic Egyptian civilization. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining somewhat culturally separate, but maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence of Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BC. Bard, Kathryn A. Ian Shaw, ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. p. 69.',
 'A unified kingdom was founded circa 3150 BC by King Menes, giving rise to a series of dynasties that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia. Egyptians subsequently referred to their unified country as tawy, meaning "two lands",  and later kemet (Coptic: kÄ«mi), the "black land", a reference to the fertile black soil deposited by the Nile river. Egyptian culture flourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian in its religion, arts, language and customs. The first two ruling dynasties of a unified Egypt set the stage for the Old Kingdom period, c.2700â\x88\x922200 BC., famous for its many pyramids, most notably the Third Dynasty pyramid of Djoser and the Fourth Dynasty Giza Pyramids.',
 "The Great Sphinx and the Pyramids of Giza, built during the Old Kingdom, are modern national icons that are  at the heart of Egypt's thriving tourism industry.",
 'The First Intermediate Period ushered in a time of political upheaval for about 150 years. Stronger Nile floods and stabilization of government, however, brought back renewed prosperity for the country in the Middle Kingdom c. 2040 BC, reaching a peak during the reign of Pharaoh Amenemhat III. A second period of disunity heralded the arrival of the first foreign ruling dynasty in Egypt, that of the Semitic Hyksos. The Hyksos invaders took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BC and founded a new capital at Avaris. They were driven out by an Upper Egyptian force led by Ahmose I, who founded the Eighteenth Dynasty and relocated the capital from Memphis to Thebes.',
 'The New Kingdom (c.1550â\x88\x921070 BC) began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as an international power that expanded during its greatest extension to an empire as far south as Jebel Barkal in Nubia, and included parts of the Levant in the east. This period is noted for some of the most well-known Pharaohs, including Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti, Tutankhamun and Ramesses II. The first known self-conscious expression of monotheism came during this period in the form of Atenism. Frequent contacts with other nations brought new ideas to the New Kingdom. The country was later invaded by Libyans, Nubians and Assyrians, but native Egyptians drove them out and regained control of their country.',
 "First built in the third or fourth century AD, the Hanging Church is Cairo's most famous Coptic church.",
 'The Thirtieth Dynasty was the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch. It fell to the Persians in 343 BC after the last native Pharaoh, King Nectanebo II, was defeated in battle. Later, Egypt fell to the Greeks and Romans, beginning over two thousand years of foreign rule.',
 "Before Egypt became part of the Byzantine realm, Christianity had been brought by Saint Mark the Evangelist in the AD first century. Diocletian's reign marked the transition from the Roman to the Byzantine era in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. The New Testament had by then been translated into Egyptian.  After the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, a distinct Egyptian Coptic Church was firmly established. Kamil, Jill. Coptic Egypt: History and Guide. Cairo: American University in Cairo, 1997. p. 39",
 'The Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a brief Persian invasion early in the seventh century, until in AD 639, Egypt was invaded by the Muslim Arabs. The form of Islam the Arabs brought to Egypt was Sunni.  Early in this period, Egyptians began to blend their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices that had survived through Coptic Christianity, giving rise to various Sufi orders that have flourished to this day. El-Daly, Okasha. Egyptology: The Missing Millennium. London: UCL Press, 2005. p. 140  Muslim rulers nominated by the Islamic Caliphate remained in control of Egypt for the next six centuries, including a period for which it was the seat of the Caliphate under the Fatimids. With the end of the Ayyubid dynasty, the Mamluks, a Turco-Circassian military caste, took control about AD 1250.  They continued to govern even after the conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517.',
 'Mosque of Mohamed Ali built in the early nineteenth century within the Cairo Citadel.',
 "The brief French Invasion of Egypt led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798 had a great social impact on the country and its culture. Native Egyptians became exposed to the principles of the French Revolution and had a chance to exercise self-governance. Vatikiotis, P.J. The History of Modern Egypt. 4th edition. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1992, p. 39  A series of civil wars took place between the Ottoman Turks, the Mamluks, and Albanian mercenaries following the evacuation of French troops, resulting in the Albanian Muhammad Ali (Kavalali Mehmed Ali Pasha) taking control of Egypt.  He was appointed as the Ottoman viceroy in 1805. He led a modernization campaign of public works, including irrigation projects, agricultural reforms and increased industrialization, which were then taken up and further expanded by his grandson and successor Isma'il Pasha.",
 "Following the completion of the Suez Canal by Ismail in 1869, Egypt became an important world transportation and trading hub. In 1866, the Assembly of Delegates was founded to serve as an advisory body for the government. Its members were elected from across Egypt.  They came to have an important influence on governmental affairs. Jankowski, James. Egypt: A Short History. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2000. p. 83  The country fell heavily into debt to European powers. Ostensibly to protect its investments, the United Kingdom seized control of Egypt's government in 1882.  Egypt gave nominal allegiance to the Ottoman Empire until 1914. As a result of the declaration of war with the Ottoman Empire, Britain declared a protectorate over Egypt and deposed the Khedive Abbas II, replacing him with his uncle, Husayn Kamil, who was appointed Sultan.",
 "Public riot during the 1919 Revolution sparked by the British exile of nationalist leader Saad Zaghlul.Between 1882 and 1906, a local nationalist movement for independence was taking shape. The Dinshaway Incident prompted Egyptian opposition to take a stronger stand against British occupation.  The first political parties were founded. After the First World War, Saad Zaghlul and the Wafd Party led the Egyptian nationalist movement, gaining a majority at the local Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to Malta on March 8, 1919, the country arose in its first modern revolution. Constant revolting by the Egyptian people throughout the country led Great Britain to issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence on February 22, 1922. Jankowski, op cit., p. 112",
 'The new Egyptian government drafted and implemented a new constitution in 1923 based on a parliamentary representative system. Saad Zaghlul was popularly-elected as Prime Minister of Egypt in 1924.  In 1936 the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was concluded.',
 "Continued instability in the government due to remaining British control and increasing political involvement by the king led to the ouster of the monarchy and the dissolution of the parliament in a military coup d'état known as the 1952 Revolution. The officers, known as the Free Officers Movement, forced King Farouk  to abdicate in support of his son Fuad.",
 'View of Cairo, the largest city in Africa and the Middle East. The Cairo Opera House (bottom-right) is the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital.',
 'On June 18 1953, the Egyptian Republic was declared,  with General Muhammad Naguib as the first President of the Republic. Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by Gamal Abdel Nasser   the real architect of the 1952 movement   and was later put under house arrest. Nasser assumed power as President and declared the full independence of Egypt from the United Kingdom on June 18 1956. His nationalization of the Suez Canal on July 26 1956 prompted the 1956 Suez Crisis.',
 "Three years after the 1967 Six Day War, during which Israel had invaded and occupied Sinai, Nasser died and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. Sadat switched Egypt's Cold War allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972.  He launched the Infitah economic reform policy, while violently clamping down on religious and secular opposition alike.",
 'In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the October War, a surprise attack against the Israeli forces occupying the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights.  It was an attempt to liberate the territory Israel had captured 6 years earlier. Both the US and the USSR intervened and a cease-fire was reached. Despite not being a complete military success, most historians agree that the October War presented Sadat with a political victory that later allowed him to pursue peace with Israel.',
 "In 1977, Sadat made a historic visit to Israel, which led to the 1979 peace treaty in exchange for the complete Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypt's expulsion from the Arab League, but it was supported by the vast majority of Egyptians. Vatikiotis, p. 443  A fundamentalist military soldier assassinated Sadat in Cairo in 1981.  He was succeeded by the incumbent Hosni Mubarak. In 2003, the Egyptian Movement for Change, popularly known as Kifaya, was launched to seek a return to democracy and greater civil liberties.",
 "Mahmoud Mokhtar's Egypt's Renaissance 1919-1928, Cairo University.",
 "The Egyptian Nile Valley was home to one of the oldest cultures in the world, spanning three thousand years of continuous history. When Egypt fell under a series of foreign occupations after 343 BC, each left an indelible mark on the country's cultural landscape. Egyptian identity evolved in the span of this long period of occupation to accommodate, in principle, two new religions, Christianity and Islam; and a new language, Arabic, and its spoken descendant, Egyptian Arabic. The degree to which different groups in Egypt identify with these factors in articulating a sense of collective identity can vary.",
 'Questions of identity came to fore in the last century as Egypt sought to free itself from foreign occupation for the first time in two thousand years. Three chief ideologies came to head: ethno-territorial Egyptian nationalism and by extension Pharaonism, secular Arab nationalism and pan-Arabism, and Islamism. Egyptian nationalism predates its Arab counterpart by many decades, having roots in the nineteenth century and becoming the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activists of the pre- and inter-war periods. It was nearly always articulated in exclusively Egyptian terms:',
 'In 1931, following a visit to Egypt, Syrian Arab nationalist Sati\' al-Husri remarked that "[Egyptians] did not possess an Arab nationalist sentiment; did not accept that Egypt was a part of the Arab lands, and would not acknowledge that the Egyptian people were part of the Arab nation." qtd in Dawisha, Adeed. Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century. Princeton University Press. 2003, p. 99  The later 1930s would become a formative period for Arab nationalism in Egypt, in large part due to efforts by Syrian/Palestinian/Lebanese intellectuals. Jankowski, "Egypt and Early Arab Nationalism," p. 246  Nevertheless, a year after the establishment of the League of Arab States in 1945, to be headquartered in Cairo, Oxford University historian H. S. Deighton was still writing:',
 'It was not until the Nasser era more than a decade later that Arab nationalism became a state policy and a means with which to define Egypt\'s position in the Middle East and the world. "Before Nasser, Egypt, which had been ruled by Britain since 1882, was more in favor of territorial, Egyptian nationalism and distant from the pan-Arab ideology. Egyptians generally did not identify themselves as Arabs, and it is revealing that when the Egyptian nationalist leader [Saad Zaghlul] met the Arab delegates at Versailles in 1918, he insisted that their struggles for statehood were not connected, claiming that the problem of Egypt was an Egyptian problem and not an Arab one." Makropoulou, Ifigenia.  Pan - Arabism: What Destroyed the Ideology of Arab Nationalism?. Hellenic Center for European Studies. January 15, 2007.  usually articulated vis-Ã\xa0-vis Zionism in the neighboring Jewish state.',
 'For a while Egypt and Syria formed the United Arab Republic.  When the union was dissolved, the current official name of Egypt was adopted, the Arab Republic of Egypt. Egypt\'s attachment to Arabism, however, was particularly questioned after its defeat in the 1967 Six-Day War.  Thousands of Egyptians had lost their lives and the country become disillusioned with Arab politics. Dawisha, p. 237  Nasser\'s successor Sadat, both by policy and through his peace initiative with Israel, revived an uncontested Egyptian orientation, unequivocally asserting that only Egypt was his responsibility.  The terms "Arab", "Arabism" and "Arab unity", save for the new official name, became conspicuously absent. Dawisha, pp. 264-65, 267  Indeed, as professor of Egyptian history P. J. Vatikiotis explains:',
 'Egyptian Flag Until 1958.',
 'The question of identity continues to be debated today.  Many Egyptians feel that Egyptian and Arab identities are linked and not necessarily incompatible.  Many others continue to believe that Egypt and Egyptians are simply not Arab.  They emphasize indigenous Egyptian heritage, culture and independent polity; point to the failures of Arab nationalist policies; and publicly voice  objection to the present official name of the country.  Ordinary Egyptians frequently express this sentiment.  For example, a foreign tourist said after visiting Egypt,"Although an avowedly Islamic country and now part and parcel of the Arab world, Egyptians are very proud of their distinctiveness and their glorious Pharaonic past dating back to 3500 BC... \'We are not Arabs, we are Egyptians,\' said tour guide Shayma, who is a devout Muslim."   In Egypt, India is Big B!. Hindustan Times. December 25, 2006.',
 'In late 2007, el-Masri el-Yom daily newspaper conducted an interview at a bus stop in the working-class district of Imbaba to ask citizens what Arab nationalism (el-qawmeyya el-\'arabeyya) represented for them. One Egyptian Muslim youth responded, "Arab nationalism means that the Egyptian Foreign Minister in Jerusalem gets humiliated by the Palestinians, that Arab leaders dance upon hearing of Sadat\'s death, that Egyptians get humiliated in the Arab Gulf States, and of course that Arab countries get to fight Israel until the last Egyptian soldier." Ragab, Ahmed. El-Masry el-Yom Newspaper.  "What is the definition of \'Arab Nationalism\': Question at a bus stop in Imbaba". May 21, 2007.  Another felt that,"Arab countries hate Egyptians," and that unity with Israel may even be more of a possibility than Arab nationalism, because he believes that Israelis would at least respect Egyptians.',
 'Some contemporary prominent Egyptians who oppose Arab nationalism or the idea that Egyptians are Arabs include Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities Zahi Hawass. In an  audio interview on Egypt\'s links with Sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab world, Hawass believes that "even today Egyptians are Egyptians. It really doesn\'t mean that because we speak Arabic that we can be Arabs. We are...really, I feel personally that we are related even today to the Pharaohs." , popular writer Osama Anwar Okasha, Egyptian-born Harvard University Professor Leila Ahmed, Member of Parliament Suzie Greiss  An Interculturalist in Cairo. InterCultures Magazine. January 2007. , in addition to different local groups and intellectuals.  Kimit Sagi      We are Egyptians, not Arabs. ArabicNews.com. 11/06.2003.  Ghobrial, Kamal.  Egypt, the Arabs and Arabism. el-Ahali. August 31-September 6, 2005.      Said Habeeb\'s Masreyat.     Egyptian national group    This understanding is also expressed in other contexts,  Egyptian people section from Arab.Net   Princeton Alumni Weekly  such as Neil DeRosa\'s novel Joseph\'s Seed in his depiction of an Egyptian character "who declares that Egyptians are not Arabs and never will be."  Review by Michelle Fram Cohen. The Atlasphere. Jan. 17, 2005.',
 "Egyptian critics of Arab nationalism contend that it has worked to erode and/or relegate native Egyptian identity by superimposing only one aspect of Egypt's culture. These views and sources for collective identification in the Egyptian state are captured in the words of a linguistic anthropologist who conducted fieldwork in Cairo:",
 'Egypt has been a republic since June 18 1953. President Mohamed Hosni Mubarak has been the President of the Republic since October 14 1981, following the assassination of former-President Mohammed Anwar El-Sadat. Mubarak is currently serving his fifth term in office. He is the leader of the ruling National Democratic Party. Prime Minister Dr. Ahmed Nazif was sworn in as Prime Minister on 9 July 2004, following the resignation of Dr. Atef Ebeid from his office.',
 'Although power is ostensibly organized under a multi-party semi-presidential system, whereby the executive power is theoretically divided between the President and the Prime Minister, in practice it rests almost solely with the President who traditionally has been elected in single-candidate elections for more than fifty years. Egypt also holds regular multi-party parliamentary elections. The last presidential election, in which Mubarak won a fifth consecutive term, was held in September 2005.',
 'In late February 2005, President Mubarak announced in a surprise television broadcast that he had ordered the reform of the country\'s presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls in the upcoming presidential election. For the first time since the 1952 movement, the Egyptian people had an apparent chance to elect a leader from a list of various candidates. The President said his initiative came "out of my full conviction of the need to consolidate efforts for more freedom and democracy." Business TodayEGYPT.  Mubarak throws presidential race wide open. March 2005.  However, the new law placed draconian restrictions on the filing for presidential candidacies, designed to prevent well-known candidates such as Ayman Nour from standing against Mubarak, and paved the road for his easy re-election victory. Lavin, Abigail.  Democracy on the Nile: The story of Ayman Nour and Egypt\'s problematic attempt at free elections. March 27, 2006.  ',
 'Concerns were once again expressed after the 2005 presidential elections about government interference in the election process through fraud and vote-rigging, in addition to police brutality and violence by pro-Mubarak supporters against opposition demonstrators. Murphy, Dan.  Egyptian vote marred by violence. Christian Science Monitor. May 26, 2005.  After the election, Egypt imprisoned Nour, and the U.S. Government stated the â\x80\x9cconviction of Mr. Nour, the runner-up in Egypt\'s 2005 presidential elections, calls into question Egypt\'s commitment to democracy, freedom, and the rule of law.â\x80\x9d  United States "Deeply Troubled" by Sentencing of Egypt\'s Nour. U.S. Department of State, Published December 24, 2005',
 "As a result, most Egyptians are skeptical about the process of democratization and the role of the elections. Less than 25 percent of the country's 32 million registered voters (out of a population of more than 78 million) turned out for the 2005 elections. Gomez, Edward M.  Hosni Mubarak's pretend democratic election. San Francisco Chronicle. September 13, 2005.   A proposed change to the constitution would limit the president to two seven-year terms in office.  Egypt to begin process of lifting emergency laws. December 5, 2006.",
 'Thirty-four constitutional changes voted on by parliament on March 19, 2007 prohibit parties from using religion as a basis for political activity; allow the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law to replace the emergency legislation in place since 1981, giving police wide powers of arrest and surveillance; give the president power to dissolve parliament; and end judicial monitoring of election.   Anger over Egypt vote timetable BBC News.  As opposition members of parliament withdrew from voting on the proposed changes, it was expected that the referendum will be boycotted by a great number of Egyptians in protest of what has been considered  a breach of democratic practices. Eventually it was reported that only 27% of the registered voters went to the polling stations under heavy police presence and tight political control of the ruling National Democratic Party. It was officially announced on March 27,2007 that 75.9% of those who participated in the referendum approved of the constitutional amendments introduced by President Mubarak and was endorsed by opposition free parliament, thus allowing the introduction of laws that curbs the activity of certain opposition elements particularly Islamists.',
 '[[Image:Kefaya demo.jpg|thumb|Members of the Kifaya democracy movement protesting a fifth term for President Hosni Mubarak. See also  video.]]',
 "Several local and international human rights organizations, including Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, have for many years criticized Egypt's human rights record as poor. In 2005, President Hosni Mubarak faced unprecedented public criticism when he clamped down on democracy activists challenging his rule. Some of the most serious human rights violations according to HRW's 2006 report on Egypt are routine torture, arbitrary detentions and trials before military and state security courts. Human Rights Watch.  Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt. 2005",
 "Discriminatory personal status laws governing marriage, divorce, custody and inheritance which put women at a disadvantage have also been cited. Laws concerning Christians which place restrictions on church building and open worship have been recently eased, but major constructions still require governmental approval and persecution of Christianity by underground radical groups remains a problem.  Church Building Regulations Eased  In addition, intolerance of Baha'is and unorthodox Muslim sects remains a problem.",
 'In 2005, the Freedom House rated political rights in Egypt as "6" (1 representing the most free and 7 the least free rating), civil liberties as "5" and gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free."',
 'See also Freedom in the World 2006, List of indices of freedom  It however noted that "Egypt witnessed its most transparent and competitive presidential and legislative elections in more than half a century and an increasingly unbridled public debate on the country\'s political future in 2005."  Freedom House. Freedom in the World - Egypt. 2006',
 "In 2007, human rights group Amnesty International released a report criticizing Egypt for torture and illegal detention. The report alleges that Egypt has become an international center for torture, where other nations send suspects for interrogation, often as part of the War on Terror. The report calls on Egypt to bring its anti-terrorism laws into accordance with international human rights statutes and on other nations to stop sending their detainees to Egypt.  Egypt torture centre, report says. bbc.co.uk. Written 2007-4-11. Accessed 2007-4-11.  Egypt's foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this report, claiming that it was inaccurate and unfair, as well as causing deep offense to the Egyptian government.  Egypt rejects torture criticism. bbc.co.uk. Written 2007-4-13. Accessed 2007-4-13.",
 'The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights (EOHR) is one of the longest-standing bodies for the defence of human rights in Egypt.  Egyptian Organization for Human Rights  In 2003, the government established the National Council for Human Rights, headquartered in Cairo and headed by former UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali who directly reports to the president.  Official page of the Egyptian National Council for Human Rights.  The council has come under heavy criticism by local NGO activists, who contend it undermines human rights work in Egypt by serving as a propaganda tool for the government to excuse its violations  Egyptian National Council for Human Rights Against Human Rights NGOs. EOHR. June 3, 2003.  and to provide legitimacy to repressive laws such as the recently renewed Emergency Law. Qenawy, Ahmed.  The Egyptian Human Rights Council: The Apple Falls Close to the Tree. ANHRI. 2004  Egypt has recently announced that it is in the process of abolishing the Emergency Law.  Egypt to begin process of lifting emergency laws. December 5, 2006.  However, in March 2007 President Mubarak approved several constitutional amendments to include "an anti-terrorism clause that appears to enshrine sweeping police powers of arrest and surveillance", suggesting that the Emergency Law is here to stay for the long haul.  Egypt parliament approves changes in constitution. Reuters. March 20, 2007.',
 'The high court of Egypt has outlawed all religions and belief except Islam, Christianity and Judaism. (For more information see Egyptian Identification Card Controversy.)',
 "Egypt's foreign policy operates along moderate lines. Factors such as population size, historical events, military strength, diplomatic expertise and a strategic geographical position give Egypt extensive political influence in Africa and the Middle East. Cairo has been a crossroads of regional commerce and culture for centuries, and its intellectual and Islamic institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural development.",
 'The permanent Headquarters of the Arab League are located in Cairo and the Secretary General of the Arab League has traditionally been an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister Amr Moussa is the current Secretary General. The Arab League briefly moved from Egypt to Tunis in 1978, as a protest to the signing by Egypt of a peace treaty with Israel, but returned in 1989.',
 "Egypt was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with Israel, with the signing of the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty in 1979. Egypt has a major influence amongst other Arab states, and has historically played an important role as a mediator in resolving disputes between various Arab states, and in the Israeli-Palestinian dispute. Most Arab states still give credence to Egypt playing that role, though its effects are often limited and recently challenged by Saudi Arabia and oil rich Gulf States. It is also reported that due to Egypt's indulgence in internal problems and its reluctance to play a positive role in regional matters had lost the country great influence in Africa and the neighbouring countries.",
 'Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.',
 'Map of Egypt, showing the 26 capitals of governorates, in addition to the self-governing city of Luxor',
 'Egypt is divided into twenty-six governorates (muhafazat, singular muhafazah). The governorates are further divided into regions (markazes).',
 '|',
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 "The Nile River at the ancient city of Aswan, a popular destination for vacationersEgypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum exports, and tourism; there are also more than three million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in Saudi Arabia, the Persian Gulf and Europe. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly-growing population, limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy.",
 'The government has struggled to prepare the economy for the new millennium through economic reform and massive investments in communications and physical infrastructure. Egypt has been receiving  U.S. foreign aid (since 1979, an average of $2.2 billion per year) and is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Its main revenues however come from tourism as well as traffic that goes through the Suez Canal.',
 'Egypt has a developed energy market based on coal, oil, natural gas, and hydro power.  Substantial coal deposits are in the north-east Sinai, and are mined at the rate of about   per year.  Oil and gas are produced in the western desert regions, the Gulf of Suez, and the Nile Delta.  Egypt has huge reserves of gas, estimated at over   in the 1990s, and LNG is exported to many countries.',
 'Economic conditions have started to improve considerably after a period of stagnation from the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government, as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming stock market. In its annual report, the IMF has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms. Some major economic reforms taken by the new government since 2003 include a dramatic slashing of customs and tariffs. A new taxation law implemented in 2005 decreased corporate taxes from 40% to the current 20%, resulting in a stated 100% increase in tax revenue by the year 2006.',
 'FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) into Egypt has increased considerably in the past few years due to the recent economic liberalization measures taken by minister of investment Mahmoud Mohieddin, exceeding $6 billion in 2006. Egypt is slated to overcome South Africa as the highest earner of FDI on the African continent in 2007.',
 "Although one of the main obstacles still facing the Egyptian economy is the trickle down of the wealth to the average population, many Egyptians criticize their government for higher prices of basic goods while their standards of living or purchasing power remains relatively stagnant. Often corruption is blamed by Egyptians as the main impediment to feeling the benefits of the newly attained wealth. Major reconstruction of the country's infrastructure is promised by the government, with a large portion of the sum paid for the newly acquired 3rd mobile license ($3 billion) by Etisalat. This is slated to be pumped into the country's railroad system, in response to public outrage against the government for disasters in 2006 that claimed more than 100 lives.",
 "The best known examples of Egyptian companies that have expanded regionally and globally are the Orascom Group and Raya. The IT sector has been expanding rapidly in the past few years, with many new start-ups conducting outsourcing business to North America and Europe, operating with companies such as Microsoft, Oracle and other major corporations, as well as numerous SME's. Some of these companies are the Xceed Contact Center, Raya Contact Center, E Group Connections and C3 along with other start ups in that country. The sector has been stimulated by new Egyptian entrepreneurs trying to capitalize on their country's huge potential in the sector, as well as constant government encouragement.",
 'Egyptian farm',
 'Egypt is the most populated country in the Middle East and the second-most populous on the African continent, with an estimated 78 million people. Almost all the population is concentrated along the banks of the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Approximately 80-90% of the population adheres to Islam and most of the remainder to Christianity, primarily the Coptic Orthodox denomination.    Apart from religious affiliation, Egyptians can be divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centers and the fellahin or farmers of rural villages. The last 40 years have seen a rapid increase in population due to medical advances and massive increase in agricultural productivity,  BBC NEWS | The limits of a Green Revolution?  made by the Green Revolution.  Food First/Institute for Food and Development Policy',
 'Egyptians are by far the largest ethnic group in Egypt at 94% (about 72.5 million) of the total population.  Ethnic minorities include the Bedouin Arab tribes living in the eastern deserts and the Sinai Peninsula, the Berber-speaking Siwis (Amazigh) of the Siwa Oasis, and the ancient Nubian communities clustered along the Nile. There are also tribal communities of Beja concentrated in the south-eastern-most corner of the country, and a number of Dom clans mostly in the Nile Delta and Faiyum who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanization increases.',
 'Egypt also hosts an unknown number of refugees and asylum seekers. According to the UNDP\'s 2004 Human Development Report, there were 89,000 refugees in the country,  UNDP, p. 75.  though this number may be an underestimate. There are some 70,000 Palestinian refugees,  and about 150,000 recently arrived Iraqi refugees,  Iraq: from a Flood to a Trickle: Egypt  but the number of the largest group, the Sudanese, is contested. See  The U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants for a lower estimate. The  The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights states on its web site that in 2000 the World Council of Churches claimed that "between two and five million Sudanese have come to Egypt in recent years". Most Sudanese refugees come to Egypt in the hope of resettling in Europe or the US.  The once-vibrant Jewish community in Egypt has virtually disappeared, with only a small number remaining in the country, but many Egyptian Jews visit on religious occasions and for tourism. Several important Jewish archaeological and historical sites are found in Cairo, Alexandria and other cities.',
 "Cairo's unique cityscape with its ancient mosques",
 'Religion plays a central role in most Egyptians\' lives. The rolling calls to prayer that are heard five times a day have the informal effect of regulating the pace of everything from business to entertainment. Cairo is famous for its numerous mosque minarets and church towers. This religious landscape has been marred by a record of religious extremism.    Most recently,  a December 16 2006 judgment of the Supreme Administrative Court of Egypt insisted on a clear demarcation between "recognized religions"â\x80\x94Islam, Christianity and Judaismâ\x80\x94and all other religious beliefsâ\x80\x94thus effectively delegitimatizing and forbidding practice of all but these aforementioned religions.     This judgment has led to the requirement for communities to either commit perjury or be subjected to denial of identification cards.',
 "Egypt is predominantly Muslim, at 80-90% of the population, with the majority being adherents of the Sunni branch of Islam.  A significant number of Muslim Egyptians also follow native Sufi orders, Hoffman, Valerie J. Sufism, Mystics, and Saints in Modern Egypt. University of South Carolina Press, 1995.  and a minority of Shi'a.",
 'Christians represent 10-20% of the population,  Wahington Institute (Citing pop. estimates)  more than 95% of whom belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the Coptic Catholic Church, the Coptic Evangelical Church and various Coptic Protestant denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Alexandria and Cairo, and are members of the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria, the Melkite Greek Catholic Church, the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Roman Catholic Church, the Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East, the Maronite Church, the Armenian Catholic Church, the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Syriac Catholic Church, or the Syriac Orthodox Church.',
 'According to the Constitution of Egypt, any new legislation must at least implicitly agree with Islamic laws. The mainstream Hanafi school of Sunni Islam is largely organised by the state, through Wizaret Al-Awkaf (Ministry of Religious Affairs). Al-Awkaf controls all mosques and overviews Muslim clerics. Imams are trained in Imam vocational schools and at Al-Azhar University. The department supports Sunni Islam and has commissions authorised to give Fatwa judgements on Islamic issues.',
 "Egypt hosts two major religious institutions. Al-Azhar University ( ) is the oldest Islamic institution of higher studies (founded around 970 A.D) and considered by many to be the oldest extant university. The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, headed by the Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, attests to Egypt's strong Christian heritage. It has a following of approximately 15 million Christians worldwide; affiliated sister churches are located in Armenia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, India, Lebanon and Syria.",
 "Religious freedom in Egypt is hampered to varying degrees by extremist Islamist groups and by discriminatory and restrictive government policies. Being the largest religious minority in Egypt, Coptic Christians are the most negatively affected community. Copts have faced increasing marginalization after the 1952 coup d'état led by Gamal Abdel Nasser. Until recently, Christians were required to obtain presidential approval for even minor repairs in churches. Although the law was eased in 2005 by handing down the authority of approval to the governors, Copts continue to face many obstacles in building new or repairing existing churches. These obstacles are not found in building mosques. WorldWide Religious News.  Church Building Regulations Eased. December 13, 2005.  Compass Direct News.  Church Building Regulations Eased. December 13, 2005.",
 "In addition, Copts complain of being minimally represented in law enforcement, state security and public office, and of being discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion. Human Rights Watch.  Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt. 2005  The Coptic community, as well as several human rights activists and intellectuals (such as Saad Eddin Ibrahim and Tarek Heggy), maintain that the number of Christians occupying government posts is not proportional to the number of Copts in Egypt, who constitute between 10 and 15% of the population in Egypt. Of the 32 cabinet ministers, two are Copts: Finance Minister Youssef Boutros Ghali and Minister of Environment Magued George; and of the 25 local governors, only one is a Copt (in the Upper Egyptian governorate of Qena). However, Copts have demonstrated great success in Egypt's private business sector; Naguib Sawiris, an extremely successful businessman and one of the world's wealthiest 100 people is a Copt. In 2002, under the Mubarak government, Coptic Christmas (January 7) was recognized as an official holiday. ArabicNews.com.  Copts welcome Presidential announcement on Eastern Christmas Holiday. December 20, 2002.   Nevertheless, the Coptic community has occasionally been the target of hate crimes and physical assaults. The most significant was the 2000-2001 El Kosheh attacks , in which 21 Copts and one Muslim were killed. A 2006 attack on three churches in Alexandria left one dead and 17 injured, although the attacker was not linked to any organisation. BBC.  Egypt church attacks spark anger, April 15 2006.",
 "Egypt was once home to one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world. Egyptian Jews, who were mostly Karaites, partook of all aspects of Egypt's social, economic and political life; one of the most ardent Egyptian nationalists, Yaqub Sanu' (Abu Naddara), was a Jew, as were famous musician Dawoud Husni, popular singer Leila Mourad, and prominent filmmaker Togo Mizrahi. For a while, Jews from across the Ottoman Empire and Europe were attracted to Egypt due to the relative harmony that characterized the local religious landscape in the 19th and early 20th centuries. After the 1956 Suez Crisis, a great number of Jews were expelled by Gamal Abdel Nasser, many of whom holding official Egyptian citizenship. Their Egyptian citizenship was revoked and their property was confiscated. A steady stream of migration of Egyptian Jews followed, reaching a peak after the Six-Day War with Israel in 1967. Today, Jews in Egypt number less than 500. Jewish Community Council (JCC) of Cairo.  Bassatine News. 2006.",
 'Over ten million Egyptians follow the Christian faith as members of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. ',
 "Bahá'Ã\xads in Egypt, whose population is estimated to be a couple of thousands, have long been persecuted, having their institutions and community activities banned. Since their faith is not officially recognized by the state, they are also not allowed to use it on their national identity cards (conversely, Islam, Christianity, and Judaism are officially recognized); hence most of them do not hold national identity cards. In April 2006 a court case recognized the Bahá'Ã\xad Faith, but the government appealed the court decision and succeeded in having it suspended on May 15, 2006.    On December 16, 2006, only after one hearing, the Supreme Administrative Council of Egypt ruled against the Bahá'Ã\xads, stating that the government may not recognize the Bahá'Ã\xad Faith in official identification documents.",
 "There are Egyptians who identify as atheist and agnostic, but their numbers are largely unknown as openly advocating such positions risks legal sanction on the basis of apostasy (if a citizen takes the step of suing the 'apostating' person, though not automatically by the general prosecutor). In 2000, an openly atheist Egyptian writer, who called for the establishment of a local association for atheists, was tried on charges of insulting Islam in four of his books.",
 'While freedom of religion is guaranteed by the Egyptian constitution, according to Human Rights Watch, "Egyptians are able to convert to Islam generally without difficulty, but Muslims who convert to Christianity face difficulties in getting new identity papers and some have been arrested for allegedly forging such documents.  Human Rights Watch. World report 2007: Egypt.  The Coptic community, however, takes pains to prevent conversions from Christianity to Islam due to the ease with which Christians can often become Muslim.   EGYPT: NATIONAL UNITY AND THE COPTIC ISSUE. 2004  Public officials, being conservative themselves, intensify the complexity of the legal procedures required to recognize the religion change as required by law. Security agencies will sometimes claim that such conversions from Islam to Christianity (or occasionally vice versa) may stir social unrest, and thereby justify themselves in wrongfully detaining the subjects, insisting that they are simply taking steps to prevent likely social troubles from happening.  Egypt: Egypt Arrests 22 Muslim converts to Christianity. 03 November, 2003  Recently, a Cairo administrative court denied 45 citizens the right to obtain identity papers documenting their reversion to Christianity after converting to Islam. Shahine, Gihan.  "Fraud, not Freedom". Ahram Weekly, 3 - 9 May 2007',
 "Bibliotheca Alexandrina is a commemoration of the ancient Library of Alexandria in Egypt's second largest city.",
 "Egyptian culture has five thousand years of recorded history. Ancient Egypt was among the earliest civilizations and for millennia, Egypt maintained a strikingly complex and stable culture that influenced later cultures of Europe, the Middle East and Africa. After the Pharaonic era, Egypt itself came under the influence of Hellenism, Christianity, and Islamic culture. Today, many aspects of Egypt's ancient culture exist in interaction with newer elements, including the influence of modern Western culture, itself with roots in ancient Egypt.",
 "Egypt's capital city, Cairo, is Africa's largest city and has been renowned for centuries as a center of learning, culture and commerce. Egypt has the highest number of Nobel Laureates in Africa and the Arab World. Some Egyptian born politicians were or are currently at the helm of major international organizations like Boutros Boutros-Ghali of the United Nations and Mohamed ElBaradei of the IAEA.",
 "The work of early nineteenth-century scholar Rifa'a et-Tahtawi gave rise to the Egyptian Renaissance, marking the transition from Medieval to Early Modern Egypt. His work renewed interest in Egyptian antiquity and exposed Egyptian society to Enlightenment principles. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformer Ali Mubarak a native Egyptology school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such as Suyuti and Maqrizi, who themselves studied the history, language and antiquities of Egypt. El-Daly, op cit., p. 29  Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people like Muhammad Abduh, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, Qasim Amin, Salama Moussa, Taha Hussein and Mahmoud Mokhtar. They forged a liberal path for Egypt expressed as a commitment to individual freedom, secularism and faith in science to bring progress. Jankowski, op cit., p. 130",
 'Eighteenth dynasty painting from the tomb of Theban governor Ramose in Deir el-Madinah.',
 'The Egyptians were one of the first major civilizations to codify design elements in art. The wall paintings done in the service of the Pharaohs followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Modern and contemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene. The Cairo Opera House serves as the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital. Egypt\'s media and arts industry has flourished since the late nineteenth century, today with more than thirty satellite channels and over one hundred motion pictures produced each year. Cairo has long been known as the "Hollywood of the Middle East;" its annual film festival, the Cairo International Film Festival, has been rated as one of 11 festivals with a top class rating worldwide by the International Federation of Film Producers\' Associations.  Cairo Film Festival information.  To bolster its media industry further, especially with the keen competition from the Persian Gulf Arab States and Lebanon, a large media city was built. Some Egyptian actors, like Omar Sharif, have achieved worldwide fame.',
 'Literature constitutes an important cultural element in the life of Egypt. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated throughout the Middle East. The first modern Egyptian novel Zaynab by Muhammad Husayn Haykal was published in 1913 in the Egyptian vernacular. Vatikiotis, op cit.  Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first Arabic-language writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Egyptian women writers include Nawal El Saadawi, well known for her feminist activism, and Alifa Rifaat who also writes about women and tradition. Vernacular poetry is perhaps the most popular literary genre amongst Egyptians, represented by such luminaries as Ahmed Fuad Nigm (Fagumi), Salah Jaheen and Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi.',
 'Upper Egyptian folk musicians from Kom Ombo.',
 'Egyptian music is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. In antiquity, Egyptians were playing harps and flutes, including two indigenous instruments: the ney and the oud. Percussion and vocal music also became an important part of the local music tradition ever since. Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of people such as Abdu-l Hamuli, Almaz and Mahmud Osman, who influenced the later work of Egyptian music giants such as Sayed Darwish, Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Abdel Halim Hafez. These prominent artists were followed later by Amr Diab. He is seen by many as the new age "Musical Legend", whose fan base stretches all over the Middle East and Europe. From the 1970s onwards, Egyptian pop music has become increasingly important in Egyptian culture, while Egyptian folk music continues to be played during weddings and other festivities.',
 'Egypt is famous for its many festivals and religious carnivals, also known as mulids or Mawlid. They are usually associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint, but are often celebrated by all Egyptians irrespective of creed or religion. Ramadan has a special flavor in Egypt, celebrated with sounds, lights (local lanterns known as fawanees) and much flare that many Muslim tourists from the region flock to Egypt during Ramadan to witness the spectacle. The ancient spring festival of Sham en Nisim (Coptic:   shom en nisim) has been celebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between the Egyptian months of Paremoude (April) and Pashons (May), following Easter Sunday.',
 'Cairo International Stadium during the 2006 African Cup of Nations',
 "Football (soccer) is the de facto national sport of Egypt. Egyptian Soccer clubs El Ahly and El Zamalek are the two most popular teams and enjoy the reputation of long-time regional champions. The great rivalries keep the streets of Egypt energized as people fill the streets when their favourite team wins. Egypt is rich in soccer history as soccer has been around for over 100 years. The country is home to many African championships such as the African Cup of Nations. However, Egypt's national team has not qualified for the FIFA World Cup since 1990.",
 'Squash and tennis are other favourite sports. The Egyptian squash team has been known for its fierce competition in international championships since the 1930s.',
 'The Egyptian Armed forces have a combined troop strength of around 450,000 active personnel.  Egypt Military Strength  According to the Israeli chair of the Knesset Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee, Yuval Steinitz, the Egyptian Air Force has roughly the same number of modern warplanes as the Israeli Air Force and far more Western tanks, artillery, anti-aircraft batteries and warships than the IDF. Steinitz, Yuval.  Not the peace we expected. Haaretz. December 05, 2006.  The Egyptian military has recently undergone massive military modernization mostly in their Air Force. Other than Israel, Egypt is the first country in the region with a spy satellite, EgyptSat 1, and is planning to launch 3 more spy satellites (DesertSat1, EgyptSat2, DesertSat2) over the next two years. Katz, Yaacov. "Egypt to launch first spy satellite," Jerusalem Post, January 15, 2007.',
 'White Desert, Farafra',
 "At  ,  World Factbook area rank order  Egypt is the world's 38th-largest country (after Mauritania). It is comparable in size to Tanzania, twice the size of France, four times the size of the United Kingdom, and is more than half the size of the US state of Alaska.",
 "Nevertheless, due to the aridity of Egypt's climate, population centres are concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that approximately 99% of the population uses only about 5.5% of the total land area. Hamza, Waleed.  Land use and Coastal Management in the Third Countries: Egypt as a case. Accessed= 2007-06-10.",
 "Egypt is bordered by Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, and by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. Egypt's important role in geopolitics stems from its strategic position: a transcontinental nation, it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between Africa and Asia, which in turn is traversed by a navigable waterway (the Suez Canal) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean via the Red Sea.",
 'Apart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt\'s landscape is a sandy desert. The winds blowing can create sand dunes over   high. Egypt includes parts of the Sahara Desert and of the Libyan Desert. These deserts were referred to as the "red land" in ancient Egypt, and they protected the Kingdom of the Pharaohs from western threats.',
 'Towns and cities include Alexandria, one of the greatest ancient cities, Aswan, Asyut, Cairo, the modern Egyptian capital, El-Mahalla El-Kubra, Giza, the site of the Pyramid of Khufu, Hurghada, Luxor, Kom Ombo, Port Safaga, Port Said, Sharm el Sheikh, Suez, where the Suez Canal is located, Zagazig, and Al-Minya. Oases include Bahariya, el Dakhla, Farafra, el Kharga and Siwa.',
 'Protectorates include Ras Mohamed National Park, Zaranik Protectorate and Siwa. See Egyptian Protectorates for more information.',
 "Egypt receives the least rainfall in the world. South of Cairo, rainfall averages only around 2 to 5 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in) per year and at intervals of many years. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as  , all between November and March. Snow falls on Sinai's mountains and some of the north coastal cities such as Damietta, Baltim, Sidi Barrany, etc. and rarely in Alexandria, frost is also known in mid-Sinai and mid-Egypt.",
 'Temperatures average between   and   in summer, and up to   on the Red Sea coast. Temperatures average between   and   in winter. A steady wind from the northwest helps hold down the temperature near the Mediterranean coast. The Khamaseen is a wind that blows from the south in Egypt in spring, bringing sand and dust, and sometimes raises the temperature in the desert to more than  .',
 'General references',
 '* Leonard William King, History of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria in the Light of Recent Discovery,  Project Gutenberg.',
 '* Gaston Camille Charles Maspero, History of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, in 12 volumes,  Project Gutenberg.',
 "*  Amnesty International's 2005 Report on Egypt.",
 'A penguin encounters a human during Antarctic summer.',
 'Penguins (order Sphenisciformes, family Spheniscidae) are a group of aquatic, flightless birds living almost exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere.',
 'The number of penguin species is debated. Depending on which authority is followed, penguin biodiversity varies between 17 and 20 living species, all in the subfamily Spheniscinae. Some sources consider the White-flippered Penguin a separate Eudyptula species, while others treat it as a subspecies of the Little Penguin (e.g. Williams, 1995; Davis & Renner, 2003); the actual situation seems to be more complicated (Banks et al. 2002). Similarly,  it is still unclear whether the Royal Penguin is merely a color morph of the Macaroni penguin. Also eligible to be a separate species is the Northern population of Rockhopper penguins (Davis & Renner, 2003). Although all penguin species are native to the southern hemisphere, they are not, contrary to popular belief, found only in cold climates, such as Antarctica. In fact, only a few species of penguin actually live so far south. At least ten  species live in the temperate zone; one lives as far north as the Galápagos Islands: the Galápagos Penguin.',
 "The largest living species is the Emperor Penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri): adults average about 1.1 m (3 ft 7 in) tall and weigh 35 kg (75 lb) or more. The smallest penguin species is the Little Blue Penguin (also known as the Fairy Penguin), which stands around 40 cm tall (16 in) and weighs 1 kg (2.2 lb). Among extant penguins larger penguins inhabit colder regions, while smaller penguins are generally found in temperate or even tropical climates (see also Bergmann's Rule). Some prehistoric species attained enormous sizes, becoming as tall or as heavy as an adult human (see below for more). These were not restricted to Antarctic regions; on the contrary, subantarctic regions harboured high diversity, and at least one giant penguin occurred in a region not quite 2000 km south of the Equator 35 mya , in a climate decidedy warmer than today.",
 'Most penguins feed on krill, fish, squid, and other forms of sealife caught while swimming underwater. They spend half of their life on land and half in the oceans.',
 'Penguins seem to have no special fear of humans and have approached groups of explorers without hesitation. This is probably on account of there being no land predators in Antarctica or the nearby offshore islands that prey on or attack penguins. Instead, penguins are at risk at sea from predators such as the leopard seal. Typically, penguins do not approach closer than about 3 meters (9 ft); they become nervous at about that distance. This is also the distance that Antarctic tourists are told to keep from penguins (tourists are not supposed to approach closer than 3 meters, but are not expected to withdraw if the penguins come closer).',
 '250px',
 'Penguins are superbly adapted to an aquatic life. Their wings have become flippers, useless for flight in the air. In the water, however, penguins are astonishingly agile. Within the smooth plumage a layer of air is preserved, ensuring buoyancy. The air layer also helps insulate the birds in cold waters. ',
 'On land, penguins use their tails and wings to maintain balance for their upright stance.',
 'All penguins are countershaded - that is, they have a white underside and a dark (mostly black) upperside. This is for camouflage. A predator looking up from below (such as an orca or a leopard seal) has difficulty distinguishing between a white penguin belly and the reflective water surface. The dark plumage on their backs camouflages them from above.',
 'Diving penguins reach 6 to 12 km/h (3.7 to 7.5 mph), though there are reports of velocities of 27 km/h (17 mph) (which are more realistic in the case of startled flight). The small penguins do not usually dive deep; they catch their prey near the surface in dives that normally last only one or two minutes. Larger penguins can dive deep in case of need. Dives of the large Emperor Penguin have been recorded which reach a depth of 565 m (1870 ft) and last up to 22 minutes.',
 'Penguins either waddle on their feet or slide on their bellies across the snow, a movement called "tobogganing", which conserves energy while moving quickly.  They also jump with both feet together if they want to move more quickly or cross steep or rocky terrain.',
 'Penguins have an average sense of hearing for birds (Wever et al 1969); this is used by parents and chicks to locate one another in crowded colonies (Jouventin et al 1999). Their eyes are adapted for underwater vision, and are their primary means of locating prey and avoiding predators; in air it has been suggested that they are nearsighted, although research has not supported this hypothesis (Sivak et al 1987).',
 'Penguins have a thick layer of insulating feathers which are designed to keep them warm in water (heat loss in water is much greater than in air).  The Emperor penguin (the largest penguin) has the largest body mass of all penguins, which further reduces relative surface area and heat loss. They also are able to control blood flow to their extremities, reducing the amount of blood which gets cold, but still keeping the extremities from freezing.  In the extreme cold of the Antarctic winter, the females are at sea fishing for food leaving the males to brave the weather by themselves.  They often huddle together to keep warm and rotate positions to make sure that each penguin gets a turn in the center of the heat pack.',
 'They can drink salt water because their supraorbital gland filters excess salt from the bloodstream.           The salt is excreted in a concentrated fluid from the nasal passages.',
 'Some penguins mate for life, others for just one season. They generally raise a small brood, and the parents cooperate in caring for the clutch and the young. During the cold season on the other hand the mates separate for several months to protect the egg. Usually, the male stays with the egg and keeps it warm while the female goes to sea to find food for the baby. When the female comes back, they switch roles.',
 'When mothers lose a chick, they sometimes attempt to "steal" another mother\'s chick, usually unsuccessfully as other females in the vicinity assist the defending mother in keeping her chick.  In some species, such as Emperor Penguins, young penguins assemble in large groups called crèches .',
 'Isabelline Adélie penguin on Gourdin Island, December 2002',
 'Perhaps one in 50,000 penguins (of most species) are born with brown rather than black plumage.  These are called Isabelline penguins, possibly in reference to the legend that the archduchess Isabella of Austria vowed not to change her undergarments until her husband united the northern and southern Low Countries by taking the city of Ostend--which took three years to accomplish.   Isabellinism is different from albinism, though the faded color of the plumage calls albinism to mind.  Isabelline penguins tend to live shorter lives than normal penguins, as they are not well camouflaged against the deep, and are often passed over as mates.',
 'Updated after Marples (1962), Acosta Hospitaleche (2004), and Ksepka et al. (2006). See the gallery for images of most living species.',
 'ORDER SPHENISCIFORMES ',
 'Taxonomy: Clarke et al. (2003) and Ksepka et al. (2006) apply the phylogenetic taxon Spheniscidae what here is referred to as Spheniscinae. Furthermore, they restrict the phylogenetic taxon Sphenisciformes to flightless taxa, and establish (Clarke et al. 2003) the phylogenetic taxon Pansphenisciformes as equivalent to the Linnean taxon Sphenisciformes, i.e., including any flying basal "proto-penguins" to be discovered eventually. Given that neither the relationships of the penguin subfamilies to each other nor the placement of the penguins in the avian phylogeny is presently resolved, this seems spurious and in any case is confusing; the established Linnean system is thus followed here.',
 'The evolutionary history of penguins is well-researched and represents a showcase of evolutionary biogeography; though as penguin bones of any one species vary much in size and few good specimens are known, the alpha taxonomy of many prehistoric forms still leaves much to be desired. Some seminal articles about penguin prehistory have been published since 2005 (Bertelli & Giannini 2005, Baker et al. 2006, Ksepka et al. 2006, Slack et al. 2006), the evolution of the living genera can be considered resolved by now.',
 'According to the comprehensive review of the available evidence by Ksepka et al. (2006), the basal penguins lived around the time of the Cretaceousâ\x80\x93Tertiary extinction event somewhere in the general area of (southern) New Zealand and Byrd Land, Antarctica. Due to plate tectonics, these areas were at that time less than   apart rather than the   of today. The most recent common ancestor of penguins and their sister clade can be roughly dated to the Campanian-Maastrichtian boundary, around 70-68 mya (Baker et al. 2006, Slack et al. 2006) The exact divergence dates according to Baker et al. (2006) mentioned in this section are not as precisely resolved as it appears to be due to uncertainties of the molecular clock used. ',
 'What can be said as certainly as possible in the absence of direct (i.e., fossil) evidence is that by the end of the Cretaceous, the penguin lineage must have been evolutionarily well distinct, though much less so morphologically; it is fairly likely that they were not yet entirely flightless at that time, as flightless birds have generally low resilience to the breakdown of trophic webs which follows the initial phase of mass extinctions because of their below-average dispersal capabilities (see also Flightless Cormorant).',
 'The oldest known fossil penguin species is Waimanu manneringi, which lived in the early Paleocene epoch of New Zealand, or about 62 mya (Slack et al. 2006). While they were not as well adapted to aquatic life as modern penguins, Waimanu were generally loon-like birds but already flightless, with short wings adapted for deep diving. They swam on the surface using mainly their feet, but the wings were - as opposed to most other diving birds, living and extinct - already adapting to underwater locomotion.',
 'Perudyptes from northern Peru was dated to 42 mya. An unnamed fossil from Argentina proves that by the Bartonian (Middle Eocene), some 39-38 mya ',
 'Contra Baker et al. (2006). ,',
 'primitive penguins had spread to South America and were in the process of expanding into Atlantic waters (Clarke et al. 2003).',
 "During the Late Eocene and the Early Oligocene (40-30 mya), some lineages of gigantic penguins existed. Nordenskjoeld's Giant Penguin was the tallest, growing nearly 1.80 meters (6 ft) tall. The New Zealand Giant Penguin was probably the heaviest, weighing 80 kg or more. Both were found on New Zealand, the former also in the Antarctic farther eastwards.",
 'Traditionally, most extinct species of penguins, giant or small, had been placed in the paraphyletic subfamily called Palaeeudyptinae. More recently, with new taxa being discovered and placed in the phylogeny if possible, it is becoming accepted that there were at least 2 major extinct lineages. One or two closely related ones occurred in Patagonia, and at least one other - which is or includes the paleeeudyptines as recognized today - occurred on most Antarctic and subantarctic coasts.',
 'But size plasticity seems to have been great at this initial stage of penguin radiation: on Seymour Island, Antarctica, for example, around ten known species of penguins ranging from medium to huge size apparently coexisted some 35 mya during the Priabonian (Late Eocene) (Jadwiszczak 2006). It is not even known whether the gigantic palaeeudyptines constitute a monophyletic lineage, or whether gigantism was evolved independently in a much restricted Palaeeudyptinae and the Anthropornithinae - were they considered valid -, or whether there was a wide size range present in the Palaeeudyptinae as delimited as usually done these days (i.e., including Anthropornis nordenskjoeldi) (Ksepka et al. 2006).  The oldest well-described giant penguin, the 5-foot-tall Icadyptes salasi, actually occurred as far north as northern Peru about 36 mya.',
 'In any case, the gigantic penguins had disappeared by the end of the Paleogene, around 25 mya. Interestingly, their decline and disappearance coincides with the spread of the Squalodontoidea and other primitive, fish-eating toothed whales, which certainly competed with them for food, and were ultimately more successful (Baker et al. 2006). A new lineage, the Paraptenodytes which includes smaller but decidedly stout-legged forms, had already arisen in southernmost South America by that time. The early Neogene saw the emergence of yet another morphotype in the same area, the similarly-sized but more gracile Palaeospheniscinae, as well as the radiation which gave rise to the penguin biodiversity of our time.',
 'Modern penguins consititute two undisputed clades and another two more basal genera with more ambiguous relationships (Bertelli & Giannini 2005). The origin of the Spheniscinae lies probably in the latest Paleogene, and geographically it must have been much the same as the general area in which the order evolved: the oceans between the Australia-New Zealand region and the Antarctic (Baker et al. 2006). Presumedly diverging from other penguins around 40 mya (Baker et al. 2006), it seems that the Spheniscinae were for quite some time limited to their ancestral area, as the well-researched deposits of the Antarctic Peninsula and Patagonia have not yielded Paleogene fossils of the subfamily. Also, the earliest spheniscine lineages are those with the most southern distribution.',
 'The genus Aptenodytes appears to be the basalmost divergence among living penguins; they have bright yellow-orange neck, breast, and bill patches, incubate by placing their eggs on their feet, and when they hatch, they are almost naked. This genus has a distribution centered  on the Antarctic coasts and barely extends to some subantarctic islands today.',
 "Pygoscelis contains species with a fairly simple black-and-white head pattern; their distribution is intermediate, centered on Antarctic coasts but extending somewhat northwards from there. In external morphology, these apparently still resemble the common ancestor of the Spheniscinae, as Aptenodytes' autapomorphies are in most cases fairly pronounced adaptations related to that genus' extreme habitat conditions. As the former genus, Pygoscelis seems to have diverged during the Bartonian ",
 'In fact, it is fairly likely that during the Bartonian, there was a near-synchronous but allopatric split between the ancestors of Aptenodytes, Pygoscelis, and the common ancestor of all remaining genera (Baker et al. 2006). ,',
 'but the range expansion and radiation which lead to the present-day diversity probably did not occur until much later, around the Burdigalian stage of the Early Miocene, roughly 20-15 mya (Baker et al. 2006).',
 'The genera Spheniscus and Eudyptula contain species with a mostly subantarctic distribution centered on South America; some, however, range quite far northwards. They all lack carotenoid coloration, and the former genus has a conspicuous banded head pattern; they are unique among living penguins in nesting in burrows. This group probably radiated eastwards with the Antarctic Circumpolar Current out of the ancestral range of modern penguins throughout the Chattian (Late Oligocene), starting approximately 28 mya (Baker et al. 2006). While the two genera separated during this time, the present-day diversity is the result of a Pliocene radiation, taking place some 4-2 mya (Baker et al. 2006).',
 'The Megadyptes - Eudyptes clade occurs at similar latitudes (though not as far north as the Galapagos Penguin), has its highest diversity in the New Zealand region, and represent a westward dispersal. They are characterized by hairy yellow ornamental head feathers; their bills are at least partly red. These two genera diverged apparently in the Middle Miocene (Langhian, roughly 15-14 mya), but again, the living species of Eudyptes are the product of a later radiation, stretching from about the late Tortonian (Late Miocene, 8 mya) to the end of the Pliocene (Baker et al. 2006).',
 'It is most interesting to note that the geographical and temporal pattern or spheniscine evolution corresponds closely to two episodes of global cooling documented in the paleoclimatic record (Baker et al. 2006). The emergence of the subantarctic lineage at the end of the Bartonian corresponds with the onset of the slow period of cooling that eventually led to the ice ages some 35 million years later. With habitat on the Antarctic coasts declining, by the Priabonian more hospitable conditions for most penguins existed in the subantarctic regions rather than in Antarctica itself. Notably, the cold Antarctic Circumpolar Current also started as a continuous circumpolar flow only around 30 mya, on the one hand forcing the Antarctic cooling, and on the other facilitating the eastward expansion of Spheniscus to South America and eventually beyond (Baker et al. 2006).',
 "Later, an interspersed period of slight warming was ended by the Middle Miocene Climate Transition, a sharp drop in global average temperature from 14 to 12 mya, and similar abrupt cooling events followed at 8 mya and 4 mya; by the end of the Tortonian, the Antarctic ice sheet was already much like today in volume and extent. The emergence of most of today's subantarctic penguin species almost certainly was caused by this sequence of Neogene climate shifts.",
 "Penguin ancestry beyond Waimanu remains unknown and not well resolved by molecular or morphological analyses. The latter tend to be confounded by the strong adaptive autapomorphies of the Sphenisciformes; a sometimes perceived fairly close relationship between penguins and grebes is almost certainly an error based on both groups' strong diving adaptations, which are homoplasies. On the other hand, different DNA sequence datasets do not agree in detail with each other either.",
 'What seems clear is that penguins belong to a clade of Neoaves (living birds except paleognaths and fowl) which comprises what is sometimes called "higher waterbirds" to distinguish them from the more ancient waterfowl. This group contains such birds as storks, rails, and the seabirds, with the possible exception of the Charadriiformes (Fain & Houde 2004).',
 'Inside this group, penguin relationships are far less clear. Depending on the analysis and dataset, a close relationship to Ciconiiformes (e.g. Slack et al. 2006) or to Procellariiformes (Baker et al. 2006) has been suggested. Some (e.g. Mayr 2005) think the penguin-like plotopterids (usually considered relatives of anhingas and cormorants) may actually be a sister group of the penguins, and that penguins may have ultimately shared a common ancestor with the Pelecaniformes and consequently would have to be included in that order, or that the plotopterids were not as close to other pelecaniforms as generally assumed, which would necessitate splitting the traditional Pelecaniformes in three.',
 'The Auk of the Northern Hemisphere is superficially similar to penguins, they are not related to the penguins at all, but considered by some to be a product of moderate convergent evolution   Convergence and divergence in the evolution of aquatic birds by Marcel Van Tuinen, Dave Brian Butvill, John A. W. Kirsch and S. Blair Hedges',
 'The word Penguin is thought by some to derive from the Welsh words pen (head) and gwyn (white),  Oxford English Dictionary. Accessed March 21, 2007.  applied to the Great Auk, which had white spots in front of its eyes (although its head was black), or from an island off Newfoundland known as Pengwyn, due to a large white rock. (In the latter case, the name may also have come from Breton.) This theory is supported by the fact that penguins look remarkably like Great Auks in general shape.',
 "It is also possible that penguin comes from the Latin pinguis, â\x80\x9cfatâ\x80\x9d. This is supported by the fact that the corresponding words in most other languages (e.g., French pingouin, German Pinguin) have i instead of e as the first vowel.  However, a Welsh 'i' is often sound-shifted to an 'e' in the English language, .",
 'Another theory states that the word is an alteration of â\x80\x9cpen-wingâ\x80\x9d, with reference to the rudimentary wings of both Great Auks and penguins, but there is no evidence for this.',
 'Tux the Linux kernel mascot',
 "Penguins are popular around the world, primarily for their unusually upright, waddling pace and (compared to other birds) lack of fear of humans. Their striking black and white plumage is often likened to a tuxedo suit. Perhaps in reaction to this cutesy stereotype, fictional penguins are occasionally presented as grouchy or even sinister. Penguins have also been the subject of many books and documentary films such as Happy Feet and Surf's Up, both CGI-Animated Animal Adventure Films, March of the Penguins, a documentary based on the migration process of Emperors, and a parody film entitled Farce of the Penguins. Mistakenly, some artists and writers have penguins based in the North Pole.  This is incorrect as there are almost no wild penguins in the northern hemisphere, and those only barely (northernmost of the Galápagos). Penguins have also found their way into a number of cartoons and television dramas, perhaps the most notable of these is Pingu - created by Silvio Mazzola in 1986 and covering more than 100 short episodes.",
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 ...]